Thirdly, the summation by Albert Einstein of the work of Clerk Maxwell on the nature of the electomagnetic field is of outstanding resource. In a separate article at this website, entitled Aether and the Theory of Relativity, there may be found a more direct discussion concerning the aether by Albert Einstein. The value of the article found below is its addressing the nature of light, and the scientific specifications thereof.

I am indebted to the the publishers of James Clerk Maxwell - A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field - and in particular to its editor, Torrance, who has authored the introduction to this book, and thus the first of the two references which are produced below. They are presented here on a not-for-profit basis, and rather in an effort to provide information for those who know themselves as the students of life. There is currently one further resource at this website which relates to the work of James Clerk Maxwell. It is the outline of a book which he had published in 1882 entitled Matter And Motion.

All the best for now,

Pete Brown
Southern Autumn of 97

A Dynamic Theory of the Electromagnetic Field.
James Clerk Maxwell.
Scottish Academic Press
Introduced and edited by T.F. Torrance (1982)

Three observations may now be offered in concluding this Introduction.

(1) Clerk Maxwell created for the first time a field theory which was independently testable against Newtonian force theories. He created a situation in which the dominance of Newtonian mechanics over the whole spectrum of physical science was called into question and decisive steps were taken in the direction of a non-mechanical thoroughly relational understanding of the intelligible connections immanent in the universe. No doubt Clerk Maxwell did not realise the far-reaching implications of his work which was to change the basic perspective and direction of physical science and alter our understanding of the world of space and time. With reference to Clerk Maxwell's two basic papers, On Physical Lines of Force and A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, Ivan Tolstoy has recently given us the following appraisal. 'For us, with our hundred or so years of perspective, these two papers - Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism - are a turning point in the history of science.

The theory is, first of all a synthesis - one of the greatest in the history of science. It unifies two kinds of force - the electric and the magnetic - under one: the electromagnetic field. This unification was the direct, logical consequence of Faraday's experimental work; it had a been begun by others -Ampere, Weber, W. Thomson. But Maxwell crystallized this, the first of the modern unified field theories and gave it the mathematical form which remains immortal under the name of Maxwell's equations - a system of relationships between changing electric and magnetic fields - a whole universe of electromagnetic phenomena, miraculously contained in a few lines of elegant mathematics.

(2) Clerk Maxwell's work was of profound conceptual importance for it had the effect of reorganising the epistemological and logical substructure of physical science, not only through his determination of the mathematical properties of radiation which has had immense implications for scientific technology, but through the way in which he conceived and developed the nature of the field and established the reality of the field as the underlying reality of all spatio-temporal phenomena. At this point we cannot do better than let Einstein himself speak.

'The formulation of these equations is the most important event in physics since Newton's time, not only because of their wealth of content, but also because they form a pattern for a new type of law. The characteristic features of Maxwell's equations, appearing in all other equations of modern physics, are summarized in one sentence. Maxwell's equations are laws representing the structure of the field.... All space is the scene of these laws and not, as for mechanical laws, only points in which matter or charges are present.

Moreover, it should be pointed out, that since the epistemological form of Clerk Maxwell's general equations does not depend on the way in which the observer, or the person who measures the fields, is moving, they have the effect of establishing the objectivity of scientific knowledge in a new and a profounder way than was possible in the post-Newtonian, and certainly, the post-Kantian, outlook upon the universe.

(3) Physical science as it stemmed from Clerk Maxwell's revolutionary ideas was left with a serious, and perhaps an ultimately irresolvable problem, of which, as we have seen, he himself seems to have been aware. This relates to the fact that although his equations expressed the mathematical properties of the energy intrinsic to the continuous field of space and time, he was unable to reconcile in a satisfactory manner, the ways in which the two basic forms of this energy, in respect of position and motion, manifest themselves. Thus, as Einstein has expressed it, while Clerk Maxwell's partial differential equations appeared as the natural expression of the primary realities of physics, in a particular area of theoretical physics,

'the continuous field appeared side by side with the material point as the representative of physical reality. This dualism has to this day not disappeared, disturbing as it must evidently be to any systematic mind.

Clerk Maxwell's problem remains with us in the difficulties that have emerged in the reconciliation of relativity theory and quantum theory, not to mention a unified field theory which will take in thermodynamics and gravity theory as well - although some way toward the solution may well lie along the line of thought which both Michael Faraday and Clerk Maxwell entertained, that the relations between particles in a field of force must be thought of as constituting, in part at least, what particles actually are. However, it is doubtful whether in the nature of the case the duality between particle and field can ever be completely removed any more than the distinction between the temporal and the spatial aspects of space-time.

ALBERT EINSTEIN

The belief in an external world independent of the observing subject lies at the foundation of all natural science. However, since sense-perceptions only inform us about this external world, or physical reality, indirectly, it is only in a speculative way that it can be grasped by us. Consequently our conceptions of physical reality can never be final. We must always be ready to change these conceptions, i.e. the axiomatic basis of physics, in order to do justice to the facts of observation in the most complete way that is logically possible. In actual fact, a glance at the development of physics shows that this axiomatic basis has met with radical changes from time to time.

The greatest change in the axiomatic basis of physics, and correspondingly in our conception of the structure of reality, since the foundation of theoretical physics through Newton, came about through the researches of Faraday and Maxwell on electromagnetic phenomena. In what follows we shall try to present this in a more precise way, while taking the earlier and later development into account.

In accordance with Newton's system, physical reality is characterised by concepts of space, time, the material point and force (interaction between material points). Physical events are to be thought of as movements according to law of material points in space. The material point is the only representative of reality in so far as it is subject to change. The concept of the material point is obviously due to observable bodies; one conceived of the material point on the analogy of movable bodies by omitting characteristics of extension, form, spatial locality, and all their 'inner' qualities, retaining only inertia, translation, and the additional concept of force. The material bodies which had psychologically given rise to the formation of the concept of 'material point' had now for their part to be conceived as a system of material points. It is to be noted that this theoretical system is essentially atomistic and mechanistic.

All happening was to be conceived of as purely mechanical, that is, merely as motions of material points according to Newton's laws of motion.

The most unsatisfactory aspect of this theoretical system - apart from the difficulty relating to the concept of 'absolute space' which has recently been brought back into the discussion - lay mainly in the doctrine of light, which Newton quite logically had also thought of as consisting of material points. Even at that time the question must already have been felt acutely: What happens to the material points that constitute light, when light itself is absorbed? Moreover, it is altogether unsatisfactory to introduce into the discussion two quite different kinds of material points which had to be put forward to represent ponderable matter and light. Then later on electrical corpuscles were added as a third sort with fundamentally different properties. Besides, it was a weakness in the basic structure that interacting forces had to be postulated quite arbitrarily to account for what happens. Nevertheless, this conception of reality accomplished a lot. How, then. did the conviction arise that it should be abandoned?

In order to give his system mathematical form at all, Newton had first to invent the concept of the differential quotient, and to draw up the laws of motion in the form of total differential equations - perhaps the greatest intellectual step that it has ever been given to one man to take. Partial differential equations were not needed for this, and Newton did not make any methodical use of them. Partial differential equations were needed, however, for the formulation of the mechanics of deformable bodies; this is bound up with the fact that in such problems the way and the manner in which bodies were thought of as constructed out of material points did not play a significant part to begin with.

Thus the partial differential equation came into theoretical physics as a servant, but little by little it took on the role of master. This began in the nineteenth century, when under the pressure of observational facts the undulatory theory of light asserted itself. Light in empty space was conceived as a vibration of the ether, and it seemed idle to conceive of this in turn as a conglomeration of material points. Here for the first time partial differential equations appeared as the natural expression of the primary realities of physics. In a particular area of theoretical physics the continuous field appeared side by side with the material point as the representative of physical reality. This dualism has to this day not disappeared, disturbing as it must be to any systematic mind.

If the idea of physical reality had ceased to be purely atomistic, it still remained purely mechanistic for the time being. One still sought to interpret all happening as the motion of inert bodies: indeed one could not at all imagine any other way of conceiving of things. Then came the great revolution which will be linked with the names of Faraday, Maxwell, Hertz for all time. Maxwell had the lion s share in this revolution. He showed that the whole of what was known at that time about light and electromagnetic phenomena could be represented by his famous double system of partial differential equations, in which the electric and the magnetic fields made their appearance as dependent variables. To be sure Maxwell did try to find a way of grounding or justifying these equations through mechanical thought-models. However. he employed several models of this kind side by side, and took none of them really seriously, so that only the equations themselves appeared as the essential matter. and the field forces which appeared in them as ultimate entities not reducible to anything else. By the turn of the century the conception of the electromagnetic field as an irreducible entity was already generally established and serious theorists had given up confidence in the justification, or the possibility, of a mechanical foundation for Maxwell's equations. Soon. on the contrary an attempt was made to give a field-theoretical account of material points and their inertia with the help of Maxwell's field theory, but this attempt did not meet with any ultimate success.

If we disregard the important particular results which Maxwell's life work brought about in important areas of physics, and direct attention to the modification which the conception of physical reality experienced through him, we can say: Before Maxwell people thought of physical reality - in so far as it represented events in nature-as material points, whose changes consist only in motions which are subject to total differential equations. After Maxwell they thought of physical reality as represented by continuous fields, not mechanically explicable, which are subject to partial differential equations. This change in the conception of reality is the most profound and the most fruitful that physics has experienced since Newton; but it must also be granted that the complete realisation of the programme implied in this idea has not by any means been carried out yet. The successful systems of physics, which have been set up since then, represent rather compromises between these two programmes, which because of their character as compromises bear the mark of what is provisional and logically incomplete, although in some areas they have made great advances. - Of these the first that must be mentioned is Lorentz's theory of electrons, in which the field and electric corpuscles appear beside one another as equivalent elements in the comprehension of reality. There followed the special and general theory of relativity which - although based entirely on field theory considerations-hitherto could not avoid the independent introduction of material points and total differential equations.

The last and most successful creation of theoretical physics, quantum mechanics, differs fundamentally in its principles from the two programmes which we will briefly designate as Newton's and Maxwell's. For the quantities which appear in its laws lay no claim to describe physical reality itself but only the probabilities for the occurrence of one of the physical realities to which attention is being directed. Dirac, to whom in my judgement. we are indebted for the most logically complete account of this theory rightly points to the fact that it would not be easy, for example. to give a theoretical description of a photon in such a way that there would be comprised in the description sufficient reason for a judgement as to whether the photon will pass a polarisator set obliquely in its path or not.

Nevertheless. I am inclined to think that physicists will not be satisfied in the long run with this kind of indirect description of reality, even if an adaptation of the theory to the demand of general relativity can be achieved in a satisfactory way. Then they must surely be brought back to the attempt to realise the programme which may suitably be designated as Maxwellian: a description of physical reality in terms of fields which satisfy partial differential equations in a way that is free from singularities.