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Early Christian
"Epigraphic Habit"
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In other papers related to the thesis that Constantine invented christianity
in the fourth century, and implemented it in the Roman Empire with effect
from his military supremacist council of Nicaea, we have emphasised that the field
of this thesis is ancient history. An alternative theory of the history
of antiquity is being explored
in which the christian "Biblical History" was inserted
into the political history of the Roman Empire
no earlier than the rise of Constantine.
As outlined in earlier articles, this thesis in the field of ancient history
is founded on one hypothesis - the Eusebian fiction postulate. In this
we postulate that Eusebius fraudulently misrepresented the natural course of
ancient history under instructions from Constantine. The Council of Antioch
and Nicaea represented turbulent boundary events in the history of the
Graeco-Roman civilisation. The priest and the philosophers at these councils,
and at The Assembly of the Saints, were non-christian saints and bishops
of the Graeco-Roman traditions. Our thesis is that the only "christian" saints
and bishops in attendance at these councils, were part of Constantine's retinue.
As Smedley Butler keenly perceived, "War is Racket".
The Eusebian fiction postulate (and thus the theory of ancient history constructed
therefrom) is falsifiable in the usual Popperian formality. Just one unambiguous
citation from the field of ancient history, to the effect that christians existed
before Constantine, and the hypothesis (and the theory) is refuted, either in
whole or in part.
The fields of research which are tributaries in terms of their citations
to the generalised oceanic field of ancient history, are a numerously threaded weave.
At this point, we might optimistically attempt their specification
in terms of the following list:
The "Evidential Bearing Fields" of Ancient History
Part (1): The "Literature Traditions"
- the speakers - authors (particularly "historians") and their estimable historicity.
- the words - ancient texts: their literature, its philology, and its translations.
- the documents - physical written source - original texts (codexes, papyrii, papyrii fragments)
- the historians - comments and analyses of the above by past and present ancient historians.
Part (2): The "Field Traditions"
- architecture, buildings, monuments
- inscriptions in stone and metal and mosaic - the epigraphic habit
- sarcophagi, burial relics, funerary ornaments
- coins (gold, silver and others)
- art, paintings and graffitti
- sculpture, reliefs, frescoes, ornamental works
- archeological relics and other citations
Part (3): The "Analysis Support Traditions & newer technologies"
- paleographic assessment of original texts, papyrii and papyrii fragments
- radio carbon dating citations
- collective and collaborative databases: epigraphic, numismatic, etc.
At the end is acknowledged the research of the authors of works cited.
We are all students of life and of ancient history
PRF Brown
EDITOR
Mountain Man Graphics, Australia
Southern Winter of 2007
Introduction to this Critical Review ... |
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The following review examines an extendable series of ancient inscriptions
which have in the past been cited in terms of ancient historical evidence
for the existence of "christians" in the epigraphic record before the
rise of Constantine.
There has in the past been no reason to question these findings.
In fact, the findings were rare and for that very reason - also very welcome.
Assumptions have been made by scholars in the field, many of them
on a mission funded by institutions with theological concerns.
The surprising results of this review of early christian evidence
is that there is not one single inscription, papyrii or archeological
and/or scientific citation which provides anything
like a statisfactory, let alone an unambiguous, reference to
"christians" or "christianity" before the rise of Constantine.
Hence the Eusebian fiction postulate is defended;
and shown consistent with the following evidence.
INDEX of cited "Early Christian" Inscriptions
- 01 253 CE - de Rossi's Cornelius Stone [Probable forgery].
- 02 250 CE - The Marcus son of Alexander inscription. ["I beg of you, kind brothers, by the one God"]
- 03 217 CE - the Marcus Aurelius Prosenes inscription. [Later hand: "welcomed before god"]
- 04 250 CE - Basilides Inscription, Ostia, Rome [The phrase "he sleeps" is christian?]
- 05 3rd CE - "Helix" athlete, Eumenia. [not located]
- 06 3rd CE - Nicomedia, Bithnya: 3rd CE Phoenician wood carver. [not located]
- 07 3rd CE - Aurelius Aristeas Inscription, Akmonein. ["reckon with the righteousness of God."]
- 08 1st CE - Erastus Inscription, mid first century. ["Paul mentions an Erastus"]
- 09 3rd CE - Fox; Harland; Snyder - Asia Minor and Phrygia ["he will reckon with (the living) God." ].
- 10 200 CE - The Marcus Demetrianos Inscription ["most holy ones who also had faith in God"].
- 11 216 CE - Inscription of Abercius [Cannot be unambiguously associated with christianity]
- 12 253 CE - Inscription of Pectorius. [Cannot be unambiguously associated with christianity]
- 13 079 CE - Christian Inscription of Pompeii. [Lost; Cannot be unambiguously associated with christianity]
INDEX of cited "Early Christian" Papyrii and Papyrii Fragments
- 101 sql CE: P.Oxy 5 "christian". [Nomina sacra ?]
- 102 3rd CE: P.Bas 17 [non christian]
- 103 303 CE: P.Oxy 43 Nighwatchmen's report - 2 churches. [two churches]
- 104 sql CE: P.Oxy 210 A "christian" fragment. [Nomina sacra ?]
- 105 3rd CE: P.Oxy. 405 Irenaeus.[Dating?]
- 106 3/4 CE: P.Oxy 407 "christian amulet; 3rd/4th century". [4th amulet]
- 107 265 CE: P.Oxy. 412 and 907[Nomina sacra ?]
- 108 2nd CE: PSI.XIV.1412 "via Sotas, the christian". [chrestian?]
- 109 3rd CE: P.Oxy 1786 Hymn with music "christian". [Father, Son, and Holy Spirit]
- 110 3rd CE: P.Oxy 2070 Scratch pad "christian". [abbreviated (I—h—) 'Jesus']
- 111 3rd CE: P.Oxy. 2276[ “in the lord god” ]
- 112 3rd CE: P.Oxy. 2404 [ “in the lord god” ]
- 113 256 CE: P.Oxy 3035 Order to arrest "chrestian". [citation is "chrestian"]
- 114 3rd CE: P.Oxy 4365 Booklending.[incorrectly presumed christian]
- 115 3/4 CE: P.Oxy 1493 lines 4–5; Nomina sacra in letter with virtually no other Christian identifiers[Nomina sacra]
INDEX of other interesting "Non Christian" Papyrii Fragments which cannot detain us
- 151 xxx CE: P.Oxy. 3057 [Judge, non christian]
- 152 xxx CE: P.Oxy. 3313 [Judge, non christian]
- 153 xxx CE: P.Oxy. 3069 [Judge, non christian]
- 154 xxx CE: P.Oxy. 3314 [Judge, non christian]
- 155 4th CE: P.Oxy. 209 [sample]
- 156 4th CE: P.Oxy. 4127 [sample]
- 157 4th CE: P.Oxy. 3857 ["Greetings in the Lord"]
- 158 3rd CE: PSI.9.1041 . ["as is proper"]
- 159 3rd CE: PSI.9.1041 . ["as is proper"]
- 160 3rd CE: PSI.9.1041 . ["as is proper"]
- 161 2nd CE: PSI.3.208 . ["according to custom"]
- 162 4th CE: P.Oxy. 4010 [magic and "the lord's prayer"]
- 163 3rd CE: P.Oxy. 32 [everyday life]
- 164 3rd CE: P.Oxy. 3646 [everyday life]
- 165 3rd CE: P.Oxy. 115 [everyday life]
- 166 3rd CE: P.Oxy. 3724 [epigrams to Philodemis]
- 167 4th CE: P.Walsh Univ.I.20 [church "land-grabs"]
- 168 4th CE: P.Oxy. 3311 [church "land-grabs"]
- 169 304 CE: P.Oxy. 2673 [the "illiterate lector"]
INDEX of cited "Early Christian" Archeological relics
Is there a missing inscription not on the index?
Send an email to arius at the domain of mountainman.com.au
(1) de Rossi's Cornelius Stone |
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Giovanni Battista de Rossi (1822-1894) considered the greatest
of the 19th century Roman archaeologists.
As a loyal member of the Catholic Church,
he was asked by Pope Pius IX to publish
his works under the Vatican imprint.
In 1857 the Vatican press printed his
Inscriptiones christianae Urbis Romae.
The work contained 1126 inscriptions
dating from the year AD 71 to 589[1]
His most famous discovery was made in 1849.
In a shed belonging to a wineyard, he found
a stone with the partial inscription
...NELIUS MARTYR.
The only possible name was Cornelius.
Pope Cornelius (251-253) died in exile,
and was therefore considered a martyr.
NB: A later edition of Inscriptiones
contained a total of 1374 inscriptions.
The first four were scrapped as forgeries,
meaning that the oldest known Christian
inscription in Rome is a memorial
to Emperor Caracalla's chamberlain Prosenes,
who died in 217.
[Editor: This inscription is most likely a classic forgery.
For the Prosenes citation see [3] below]
(2) The Marcus Inscription |
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An inscription from about 240-50 CE
provides us with information
about two such Christians as members
of the imperial household
(CIL VI 8987 ' ICUR X 27126 ' Clarke 1971).(15)
Footnote [15]:
The inscription was identified
quite securely as Christian
in connection with the phrase
"I beg of you, kind brothers, by the one God"
(fratres boni, per unum deum) by Clarke (1971: 121-22)
and has been accepted as such by other experts
in Christian epigraphy (cf. Mazzoleni 1999:153-54).
Alexander, an imperial slave, erected
a memorial for his deceased son, Marcus
,
who had been the keeper of the wardrobe
in the domestic service of the emperor.
Most importantly for our purposes is the fact
that Marcus had acquired an education --
a key factor in social advancement --
at the paedogogium ad Caput Africae,
a senior administrative training centre
for the young of the imperial family
(see Mohler 1940: 270-80).
As G.W. Clarke (1971: 122-23) points out,
the better graduates of this school
"would be well read, well spoken;
they would expect to marry non-servile wives
(though not yet manumitted themselves),
to own [398] considerable property and other slaves,
to receive entree into (though not equal status with)
the major social and governmental circles,
and thus to wield themselves considerable de facto power."
Here, then, is a clear example wherein a Christian family
was making advancements socially in the service of the emperor,
and it is likely that there were others like them.
[Editor: The phrase: "I beg of you, kind brothers, by the one God",
clearly, need not have been articulated by a christian mind.]
(3) The Prosenes Inscription |
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A funerary inscription in Rome from the Severan period, to Prosenes,
and a servant of emperor, is claimed to be christian.
This inscription is said to be "less securely identified as Christian"
for reasons which you are about to perceive:
The grave of Marcus Aurelius Prosenes--set up by several
of his own freedpersons (liberti)--reveals that this
imperial freedman had moved his way through the hierarchy
of imperial service, even holding several procuratorships
(senior positions of considerable influence) under Commodus.
Though nothing in the original inscription
suggests Christian identity,
one freedman named Ampelius
later inscribed on the stone
the fact that Prosenes was
"welcomed before God"
(receptus ad deum) on March 3, 217,
an expression which may best
be explained in terms of Christianity.
(ICUR VI 17246; cf. Mazzoleni 1999: 153).
[Editor: The phrase: "welcomed before God",
clearly, need not have been articulated by a christian mind.
Further, the phrase was added by a later hand.]
(4) The Basilides Inscription, Ostia, Rome |
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An inscription from Ostia described as "(probably Christian)"
is the grave of Basilides, who was an imperial slave serving as assistant to Sabinus,
the imperial paymaster for the port, probably around 250 CE. (CIL XIV 1876).(16)
FOOTNOTE: [16.]
The inscription is categorised as Christian
based on the phrase
"he sleeps"
(hic dormit),
which seems to have been
a Christian usage at Ostia
(cf. CIL XIV 1877-78),
sometimes adding "in peace"
(in pace)
(cf. CIL XIV 1887, 1888, 1889).
See Cadoux 1925: 560, n.6,
who mentions this and two other
Ostian Christian inscriptions (CIL XIV 1878-79),
the latter involving slaves or freedmen
of the imperial family in the early 4th century.
[Editor: The phrase: "he sleeps", and/or "he sleeps peacefully",
clearly, need not have been articulated by a christian mind.]
(5) "Helix" athlete, Eumenia |
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- R.L.FOX p.295: In Eumenia christian athlete "Helix" - citizenship in several cities, member of councils
[Editor: Citation (5) yet to be examined.
One reference found at
JSTOR]
(6) Nicomedia, Bithnya: 3rd century wood carver, from Phoenicia |
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- FOX p.295: Epitaph from Nicomedia, Bithnya:
3rd century christian wood carver, originally from Phoenicia
[Editor: Citation (6) yet to be examined ... however, again,
Fox provides the usual disclaimer "(probably Christian)"
]
(7) The Aurelius Aristeas Inscription, Akmoneia |
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A 3rd-century grave-inscription from Akmoneia is suggestive:
a Christian named Aurelius Aristeas promises
"the neighborhood of those by the gateway"
provisions for regular banquets
if they fulfill their obligation
by putting roses on his wife's grave once a year.
(Ramsay 1895-97: 562-63, no. 455-57).(11)
Footnote [11]:
The inscription is categorized as Christian
based on the warning against violation,
which says that if anyone violates the grave,
"they will have to reckon with the righteousness of God."
This is a variation on the so-called "Eumeneian formula".
[Editor: The phrase: "they will have to reckon with the righteousness of God."
clearly, need not have been articulated by a christian mind.]
(8) The Erastus Inscription, mid first century |
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[Referenced from “Connections with Elites in the World of the Early Christians,”
by Philip A. Harland (York University, Toronto)]
Although those of "noble birth" and "power" (1 Cor 1.26) among the Corinthian Christians (mid-1st century) could be among those who assumed important civic positions, it is only in the case of Erastus at Corinth that we have more solid confirmation of this possibility. Paul mentions that Erastus is a civic functionary of some type, an "oikonomos of the city" (Rom 16.23). That Erastus was a civic functionary is significant in itself, but it is not clear precisely what position Erastus filled and its level of importance (Paul is speaking in Greek and the positions in the Roman colony of Corinth would usually be expressed in Latin). The fact that Paul singles out Erastus in mentioning an occupation suggests that the position is one of relatively high status (cf. Theissen 1980.75-76). Mason's (1974: 71) study of Greek equivalents of Latin terms shows that the term oikonomos could be used to describe a number of positions, including treasurer (dispensator), overseer (vilicus) or even aedile. Any of these positions are candidates in this case, but the position of aedile would be the most influential. The two civic aediles, elected annually, were responsible for management of public streets, buildings, and revenue in a Roman colony, and their position was second only to the chief magistrates, the duoviri.
If Erastus was an aedile (which we cannot say for sure),
it is possible that he can be identified with his namesake
in an inscription from Corinth of mid-1st century:
Perhaps there were other Christians, like Erastus,
among the civic elites in the first two centuries,
who continued to offer their services
to their home city, but we can only speculate.
[Editor: This argument is a subterfuge for wishful thinking.]
(9) Fox; Harland; Snyder - Asia Minor and Inscriptions of Phrygia |
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Phrygia
The following reference is again from “Connections with Elites in the World of the Early Christians,”
by Philip A. Harland (York University, Toronto):
[395]
It is only in the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries (beginning ca 180 CE) that we begin to find surviving artifactual evidence for Christians that is distinguishable from the more general archeological record (cf. Snyder 1985).
So it is significant that some of the extant monuments or inscriptions, many of which come from Asia Minor, provide glimpses of Christians among the civic elites, playing a significant role in the life of the city.
Besides those inscriptions that clearly indicate pride in at least civic citizenship
(e.g. Snyder 1985: 138-41, no. 5), there are several examples of Christians
as members of civic councils in Asia Minor in the mid-late 3rd century.
... at Eumeneia there were several Christians on the council.(12)
Footnote [12]:
Sebaste: Johnson 1995: 92-93, no. 3.6 ' Ramsay 1895-97: 560, no. 451.
Eumeneia: Johnson 1995: 82-83, no. 3.2 ' Ramsay 1895-97: 519-20, no. 359;
Johnson 1995: 84-85, no. 3.3 ' Ramsay 1895-97: 525, no. 368; Johnson 1995: 86-87, no. 3.4 ' Ramsay 1895-97: 522, no. 364; Ramsay 1895-97: 520-21, no. 361.
These are categorized as Christian
primarily based on the so-called "Eumeneian formula,"
which warns that if anyone should disturb the grave,
"he will reckon with (the living) God."
At Eumeneia and the surrounding Phrygian region, at least,
the phrase indicates Christian identity,
but not necessarily in the case of inscriptions
from other regions ....
(see Calder 1939; Robert 1960: 405-13; Johnson 1995: 41-43).
Further ....
- At Sebaste there was a Christian physician on the council.
The above citation is yet to be determined.
In the meantime, here are some related references
to inscriptions taken from Robin Lane Fox's "Pagans and Christians":
- p.294: "The Christians for Christians Epitaphs of Phrygia"
Says Fox: "one of which is dated mid-third century" cites [FN:4].Elsa Gibson.
Cites therefrom other inscriptions relating "Rouben", and to "christian" magistrate:
[Editor: See below. I had previously reviewed the work.]
Fox: "Phrygia also gives us our greatest cluster of early christian epitaphs.
At least 20 were put up in the years between 240 and 300, on the latest collection of evidence."
[Editor: We emphatically dispute the actual veracity of Fox's claim here.
Fox cites the book by Elsa Gibson, which I have separately reviewed.
In our review of these Phrygian inscriptions, we note the existence
of "interpolated gravestones" by "a later ("christian"?) hand".
We also note the absence of dating on most of the citations in Gibson, and
the fact that the citations are gathered together to a set of 40 citations
because "more than half look like they came from the same workshop".
In addition to these, further issues are raised with respect to this class
of Greek Phrygian inscriptions.]
p.587: "Evidence for the christian's growing presence is very tenuous indeed."
"In Phrygia, we hear of one town which had gone completely christian before Constantine." [FN:4]
[FN:4] cites Eusebius
"In 324/5 the Phrygian settlement of Orcistus petitoned Constantine, referring to its totally christian population."
p.668: "We learn from Gregory of Nazianzus how his father, a great landowner,
was converted to christianity by an opportune dream in the year 325:
he had a christian wife already and ended his days
a the powerful bishop of the family's home town. [FN:14]
[Editor: Again the phrase: "they will have to reckon with the righteousness of God."
clearly, need not have been articulated by a christian mind.
We have for example, Constantine in 325 CE,
writing to prospective Nicaean attendees,
and using the term "the fear of god".
A rich landholder was prompted in a dream to become Christian c.325 CE
Constantine was making an impact on the publicity stakes.
His military supremacy was well regarded.
Town councils and rich "pagans" were trying to get in on the ground floor.
There were stampeding supporters in that year, especially in Phrygia.
Fox, Snyder, Harland and others cite Elsa Gibson's work on Phrygian inscriptions.
A separate review article examines Gibson's work.]
(10) The Marcus Demetrianos Inscription |
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Even more telling is an earlier inscription
from Claudiopolis in Bithynia (late 2nd-mid 3rd centuries CE),
which involves a Christian as an important civic magistrate
and benefactor of the city:
For the two purest ones who also had faith in God:
Marcus Demetrianos, who served as foremost archon,
civic administrator, and director of contests with
honor, and the dearest mother, Aurelia Pannychas.
Aurelia Demetriane, their daughter, and Domitios
Heliodoros, their son-in-law, together with her
brother Demetrianos and her uncle Chrysippos
erected this tomb as a memorial
(Johnson 1995: 80-81, no. 3.1 [tr., with adaptations] ' IBithDörner II 159).(13)
Footnote [13]:
Both F.K. Dörner (1952:59-60) and L. Robert (1978:414)
categorize the inscription as
certainly Christian based on the phrase
"To the most holy ones who also had faith in God";
the use of "faith" (pistis) in conjunction with monotheism
is characteristically Christian in inscriptions.
(cf. IBithDörner II 160).
[Editor: The phrase: "To the most holy ones who also had faith in God";
clearly, need not have been articulated by a christian mind.]
(11) Inscription of Abercius |
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Text inscribed into a slab was found in 1882 by an English traveller, W. Ramsay,
at Kelendres, near Synnada, in Phrygia Salutaris (Asia Minor). This inscribed slab
was bearing the date of the year 300 of the Phrygian era (216 CE).
The inscription in question recalled the memory of a certain Alexander, son of Anthony.
De Rossi and Duchesne at once recognized in it phrases similar to those in the epitaph of Abercius. On comparison it was found that the inscription in memory of Alexander corresponded, almost word for word, with the first and last verses of the epitaph of the Bishop of Hieropolis; all the middle part was missing. Mr. Ramsay, on a second visit to the site of Hieropolis, in 1883, discovered two new fragments covered with inscriptions, built into the masonry of the public baths. These fragments, which are now in the Vatican Christian Museum, filled out the middle part of the stele inscribed with the epitaph of Abercius. It now became possible, with the help of the text preserved in the Life, to restore the original text of the epitaph with practical certainty.
The subject of the epitaph is often identified with a writer named Abercius Marcellus,
author of a work against the Montanists, and claimed to be at one time the christian
Bishop of Hieropolis, in Phrygia. Some fragments of this work have been preserved by
Eusebius.
Here is the text from Quasten, Patrology, v. 1, p. 172.
1. The citizens of an eminent city, I made this (tomb)
2. In my lifetime, that I might have here a resting-place for my body.
3. Abercius by name, I am a disciple of the chaste shepherd,
4. Who feedeth His flocks of sheep on mountains and plains,
5. Who hath great eyes that look on all sides.
6. He taught me . . . faithful writings.
7. He sent me to Rome, to behold a kingdom
8. And to see a queen with golden robe and golden shoes.
9. There I saw a people bearing the splended seal.
10. And I saw the plain of Syria and all the cities, even Nisibis,
11. Having crossed the Euphrates. And everywhere I had associates
12. Having Paul as a companion, everywhere faith led the way
13. And set before me food the fish from the spring
14. Mighty and pure, whom a spotless Virgin caught,
15. And gave this to friends to eat, always
16. Having sweet wine and giving the mixed cup with bread.
17. These words, I, Abercius, standing by, ordered to be inscribed.
18. In truth, I was in the course of my seventy-second year.
19. Let him who understands and believes this pray for Abercius.
20. But no man shall place another tomb upon mine.
21. If one do so, he shall pay to the treasury of the Romans two thousand pieces of gold,
22. And to my beloved fatherland Hieropolis, one thousand pieces of gold.
[Editor: There are a number of alternative interpretations here.
Firstly it must be noted that the inscription speaks of "The Shepherd" not "The Christian".
That this allegorical text refers to anything christian is only by way of assumption.
For example, there have been a number
of different interpretations of Abercius.
- In 1894 G. Ficker, supported by O. Hirschfeld, strove
to prove that Abercius was a priest of Cybele.
- In 1895 A. Harnack offered an explanation based upon religious syncretism.
- in 1896, Dieterich made Abercius a priest of Attis.
It is considered moreover that "The Shepherd" referred to above
at the time in history around 216 CE, has a greater likelihood
of being associated with the "The Shepherd" and the "Teacher"
referred to in the Nag Hammadi manuscripts.
The figure of Thrice-great Hermes mentioned on a number
of Nag Hammadi texts has often been associated with Apollonius
of Tyana. For example, refer to a separate article entitled
Hermes Trismegistus & Apollonius of Tyana
in the Writings of Bahá’u’lláh, Keben Brown, 1997. Additionally, the abbreviated form of Apollonius is Pol
and the greek name Apollonius is written in the Codex Bezae.
As such, the
inscription of Abercius is refuted to be unambiguously associated with
early christianity.]
(12) Inscription of Pectorius |
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[Introduction from elsewhere ...]
The inscription of Pectorius is reckoned among the finest
eucharistic discoveries of early Christianity. In 1839 seven
fragments of a marble gravestone bearing the inscription of
Pectorius were found in an old cemetery in the vicinity of Autun,
in Southern France. The celebrated Catholic liturgical scholar Dom
J. P. Pitra, later Cardinal, was the first to have studied this
epitaph and published it in 1852;[11] in time a great number of
other scholars made diligent researches into its date, language
and contents.
...[trimmed]...
The Greek text of the inscription has a prominent feature which is
entirely lost in an English translation, namely, the first letter'
of the words introducing each of the first five verses from the
word 'ICHTHUS': and thus bind the verses together. This word not
only opens the first verse, but also appears in the text of the
sixth, seventh and eleventh verse. We may well assume that such an
order and symbolism were not accidental; they conveyed to the mind
of the Christians a message guarded in terms they well understood.
The date of the Inscription of Pectorius is less certain than that
of Abercius.
Cardinal Pitra and John B. De Rossi date it to the
beginning of the second century;
others, not later than the
fourth.
The text of the inscription freely translated reads as follows:
1 Thou, the divine child of the heavenly Fish
2 Keep pure thy heart among the mortals
3 Once thou hast been washed in the fountain of divine waters.
Refresh thy soul, friend,
4 With the ever flowing waters of wealth-giving wisdom.
5 Take from the Redeemer of saints the honey-sweet food;
6 Eat with joy and desire, holding the Fish in thy hands.
7 I pray thee, Lord Savior, satisfy his hunger with the Fish.
8 May my mother rest peacefully, I beseech thee, Light of the dead.
9 Aschandius, father, my heart's beloved
10 With my dearest mother and my brothers
11 In the peace of the Fish remember thy Pectorius.
[Editor: Again, further alternative interpretations are naturally feasible
There is nothing unambiguously "christian" with these verses.
The same arguments assembled for Abercius apply here.]
(13) Christian Inscription of Pompeii. |
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There is a book entitled The Christian Inscription at Pompeii
by Paul Berry, which may or may not present an image of the inscription. Another
commentator writes:
"The conjecture that there was an underground Christian community in Pompeii is supported by similar circumstances. However there are reasons to question these as well. The impression of what appeared to be a cross impressed into stucco in Herculaneum in the House of the Bicentenary was actually a cupboard support. While the inscription in the House of the Christian Inscription (obviously named) is incomplete (even though it does contain the word ‘Christian’) "
A further source states rthe following:
"A charcoal inscription, in Latin, found at Pompeii in 1862, was once interpreted as "Bovos listens to the Christians [Christianos], the cruel haters", but this interpretation (one of a few interpretations, that I know of)
cannot be tested, as the inscription already in 1864 was lost, and is only available in two conflicting drawings.
This inscription should not be confused with the grafitti (not separately listed here)
known as Graffiti from Pompei VIII (corridor in the theater); 2457:, listed here:
"Methe, slave of Cominia, from Atella, loves Chrestus.
May Pompeian Venus be dear to both of them
and may they always live in harmony."
For the issues related to "Chrestos" / "Christos" disambiguation see the sources
for chrestos & christos in antiquity, and
especially review the articles presented by
HistoryHuntersInternational on the Archaeology of "Chrest".
On Prophecy by Melito of Sardis (P.Oxy. 5, 3rd/4th c.)
(103) P.Oxy 43 Nighwatchmen's report - 2 churches
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[JBL] P.Oxy. 43 is a list of Oxyrhynchite watchmen on the verso of an account dated 295 C.E.,
recording streets and public buildings, including a north church (col. 1, line 10) and a south church
(col. 3, line 19), with streets named after each.
[Editor: We may have had two churches 295 CE: but were they christian?]
(104) P.Oxy 210 A "christian" fragment.
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(105) Irenaeus and P.Oxy, 3.405
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- (FOX) [FN:55] P.Oxy, 3.405 - Irenaeus' "Overthrow of the So-Called Knowledge"
[Editor: We may be looking at a fragment of Irenaeus.
But who wrote the fragment, and when was it written?
Notably, no new testament fragment has been radio-carbon dated.]
(106) P.Oxy 407 "christian".
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[JBL] Another, an amulet (P.Oxy. 407, 3rd/4th c.),
quotes a phrase from LXX Ps 145:6, followed by a prayer for mercy and salvation
“through our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ,”
[Editor: 4th Century
Amulets were often written text, folded and carried about for protection.
On the use of the Lord’s Prayer in magic, with additional examples,
see Leiv Amundsen, “Christian Papyri from the Oslo Collection.
Similar, more popular use of Ps 91 (90 LXX), with thirty examples.]
265 CE: papyrus letter sent by christian in Rome to brethren
[FN:41] P.Oxy. 907 also [FN:40] P.Oxy. 412
Transcription & translation
XV Fragmentary Books of Identified Authors
Papyri from the Rise of Christianity in Egypt
© Macquarie University 2005
184 CONCLUSION OF BOOK 18 OF Cesti Album 215
BY JULIUS AFRICANUS
P.Oxy.3.412 Oxyrhynchus c. 230-265
The will of Aurelius Hermogenes,
dated to 276
" .... and so on. Whether then this being so
the poet himself dropped the
superstitious part of the incantation
because of the dignity of his
work, or whether the Pisistratidae,
when they were editing
the rest of the epics, excluded these (lines)
because they judged them to be
alien to the structure of the poem,
I would very much like to know (?).
I myself have set them down here as a very
valuable production of the epic (craft);
you will find this
whole passage preserved
among the
archives of (my) old country,
the colony of Aelia
Capitolina in Palestine,
and in Nysa in Caria and as far
as the thirteenth (line) in Rome
near the hot baths of Alexander
in the beautiful library in the Pantheon,
which I myself
constructed for the
Emperor.
vac. (vacant)
Julius Africanus,
Kestos 18
1970); F. Winkelmann, 'Iulius Africanus',
RAC Lief. 149/150 (1999) 508-18.
[Editor: British Library P.Oxy. 907 Pap. 2040 (verso) AD 276, Oxyrhynchus
Will of Aurelius Hermogenes, a prytanis of the senate of Oxyrhynchus]
(FOX) p.589: "Allusion to christians in non-christian contexts,
the harvest is very thin indeed."[FN:13]
[FN:13] P. Bas 17; P. Oxy. 2276 and wills in P. Oxy. 2404 and 907.
p.590: the author makes the necessary disclaimer when he says
"two wills in which Christians (probably) .."
"It is hard to be sure what phrases establish a christian author
or christian presence in the papyrii,
but on a tight definition there is next to nothing before 300
which is not related to the problem of persecution."
[Editor: Probable citation being checked.]
[JBL] Further insight may be gained from a copy of a lease for property (P.Oxy.
1690, dated about 287) owned by a literate woman, Aurelia Ptolemais, that was
found with fragments of two papyri containing the Iliad (P.Oxy. 1386, 1392) and
portions of a much rarer History of Sikyon (P.Oxy. 1365), literary works that she
owned and presumably read.88 Roger Bagnall argued that her father was Aurelius
Hermogenes, a councillor at Oxyrhynchus, whose will named as heirs a
daughter, Aurelia Ptolemais, along with another daughter, three sons, and his
wife, Isidora (P.Oxy. 907, dated 276).
(108) PSI.XIV.1412 "via Sotas, the christian".
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[JBL] An athlete, presumably a professional, sent money to his
mother “via Sotas the Christian” (PSI XIV.1412, line 10, 2nd/3rd c.)
Check the greek.
(109) P.Oxy 1786 Hymn with music "christian".
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[JBL = A Hymn to the Trinity]
A hymn with musical notation (P.Oxy. 1786) was
found on the verso of a corn account dated in the first half of the third century,
placing the hymn later in that century. Undoubtedly it remains “the most
ancient piece of Church music extant.”103 Portions of the last five lines survive,
written on a narrow strip of papyrus about two by twelve inches, with corresponding
vocal notes above each line.104 What remains of the text calls upon the
light-giving stars to be silent and the rushing rivers to sing praises with all
power to Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, Amen, Amen, and for dominion and
praise to the giver of all good things, Amen, Amen.105
To be sure, the whole hymn is not extant, though nothing here could come
from our NT papyri, except the reference to the Trinity. This, however, is not
likely to be a direct citation of Matt 28:19, for there is no similarity of context in
the two passages. Rather, the hymn’s Trinity undoubtedly was drawn from
church liturgy.
[Editor: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit -- see Philo -- are not unambiguously christian]
(110) P.Oxy 2070 Scratch pad "christian". ['Jesus']
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[JBL]
P.Oxy 2070 from the late third century meets and exceeds our primary
criterion—it is virtually without doubt a local document, and, in addition,
is the autograph itself:
This is suggested by the frequent alterations which have been made in the
text, apparently by the original hand, and are difficult to explain except on the
hypothesis that we here have a fragment of the author’s own manuscript.
That it is a Christian document is clear from the name “Jesus” (line 10), written
in the usual abbreviated fashion (I—h—). Portions of eighty-eight lines survive of
this seriously deteriorated papyrus roll, though only some fifty lines contain one
or more complete words, permitting almost nothing beyond its general character
to be discerned. Even that is possible only because citations from two
Psalms and Isaiah can be restored.126 Their identification, in turn, clinches the
nature of this treatise, for these very passages from the Jewish Scripture occur,
for instance, in Justin’s Dialogue with Trypho the Jew, in either anti-Jewish contexts
or as proof-texts for the messiahship of Jesus.
[Editor: An abbreviated reference to Jesus does not make the author "christian".]
(111) P.Oxy. 2276[non christian]
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[JBL] “in the lord god”: P.Oxy. 2276, lines 29–30 (end 3rd c.)
[Editor: The phrase “in the lord god” is not unambiguously christian]
(112) P.Oxy. 2404 [non christian]
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(113) P.Oxy 3035 Order to arrest ["chrestian"]
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From the governor
to village rulers and officers of peace
of the village of Mermerthon. At once
send up Petosarapin of Horus a <<< Christian>>> <<<==== See IMAGE BELOW,
or you yourselves come up.
During the third year of Valerian and Gallienus the August [pl.]
Phamenoth 3.
(114) P.Oxy 4365 Booklending at Oxyrynchus [non christian]
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An early fourth century private letter at Oxyrynchus (P.Oxy. 4365)
was written in twenty-one words, in six lines, on the back of a piece
of papyrus cut from a roll that contained a petition written in the
late-third century. It reads simply as follows:
"To my dearest lady sister,
greetings in the Lord.
Lend the Ezra,
since I lent you the little Genisis.
Farewell in God from us."
Concerning the presumption of "christian status" of the author
of this letter, here is one summary:
So our letter about exchanging books,
which might at first blush seem Jewish
must be taken as Christian because the expression
"in the Lord" and "in God"
exhibit nomina sacra thus conforming
to a pattern established elsewhere.
---- The Journal of Biblical Literature 123/1 (2004), p.5-55,
THE OXYRHYNCHUS NEW TESTAMENT. PAPYRI:
“NOT WITHOUT HONOR. EXCEPT IN THEIR HOMETOWN”?
ELDON JAY EPP
[Editor: The phrases: "in the Lord" and "in God"
clearly, need not have been articulated by a christian mind.]
(115) P.Oxy 1493 and Nomina sacra [Nomina sacra]
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[JBL] Nomina sacra in letters with virtually no other Christian identifiers:
P.Oxy. 1493, lines 4–5 (3rd/4th c.)
[Editor: Nomina sacra need not have been articulated by a christian mind.]
(200) Art, Statues, Pottery relics, catacombs |
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Editorial Introduction
The fields of research which are tributaries in terms of their citations
to the generalised oceanic field of ancient history, are a numerously threaded weave.
At this point, we might optimistically attempt their specification
in terms of the following list:
The "Evidential Bearing Fields" of Ancient History
Part (1): The "Literature Traditions"
- the speakers - authors (particularly "historians") and their estimable historicity.
- the words - ancient texts: their literature, its philology, and its translations.
- the physical written source - original texts (codexes, papyrii, papyrii fragments)
Part (2): The "Field Traditions"
- architecture, buildings, monuments
- inscriptions in stone and metal and mosaic - the epigraphic habit
- sarcophagi, burial relics, funerary ornaments
- coins (gold, silver and others)
- art, paintings and graffitti
- sculpture, reliefs, frescoes, ornamental works
- archeological relics and other citations
Part (3): The "Analysis Support Traditions & newer technologies"
- paleographic assessment of original texts, papyrii and papyrii fragments
- radio carbon dating citations
- collective and collaborative databases: epigraphic, numismatic, etc.
The remaining section of this critical revue now turns its attention
to the other sources of evidentiary citations in the field of ancient
history listed above. Again, we are interested in citations that have
been used in the literature of ancient history as citations in regard
to the very existence of "christians", outside the literature tradition.
The following citations have been gathered from various sources.
Acknowledgment is summarised at the end.
(201) the Catacombs and underground gravediggers
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It is often asserted that in the catacombs of Rome
there exists the ancient evidence of tombs and their
inscriptions bearing witness to the existence of the
christian religion before the rise of Constantine.
This assertion is disputed.
There are a large number of documents on the web which
relate to the Radiocarbon Dating in the Catacombs of St.Callixtus..
To my knowledge, none of these archeological citations
are able to determine that there were in fact christians
using the catacombs before Constantine turned up in Rome 312 CE.
For example, the paper published in RADIOCARBON, Vol 47, Nr 3,
2005, p 395–400 © 2005 by the Arizona Board of Regents on behalf
of the University of Arizona: "RADIOCARBON DATES FROM THE CATACOMBS
OF ST. CALLIXTUS IN ROME" - (Rutgers, van der Borg, de Jong).
ABSTRACT: This paper reports the first chronological assessment
of the Christian catacombs of Rome by radiocarbon dating. The
organic materials dated were found in a set of burial rooms in
the so-called Liberian region of the catacombs of St. Callixtus
on the Appian Way. 14C dating of small samples by accelerator mass
spectrometry (AMS) represents a major advance over traditional
archaeological dating methods used in catacomb archaeology; however,
AMS 14C dating raises questions about sample reliability and
chronological evaluation. We briefly explore these questions.
Our position is that Constantine may have been the first to
use these catacombs in any formal christian manner. Certainly,
there were others following him, who made substantial renovations
to the catacombs.
Renovations under Damasus
Pope Saint Damasus I was pope from 366 to 383,
and was probably born near the city of Idanha-a-Nova (in Lusitania,
Hispania), in what is present-day Portugal, under the Western Roman
Empire. His life coincided with the rise of Constantine I and the
reunion and redivision of the Western and Eastern Roman Empire as
well as what is sometimes known as the Constantinian shift associated
with the widespread legitimization of Christianity and the later
adoption of Christianity as the religion of the Roman state.
The Catholic Encyclopaedia tells us this about Damasius:
Damasus restored his own church (now San Lorenzo in Damaso) and provided for the proper housing of the archives of the Roman Church (see VATICAN ARCHIVES). He built in the basilica of St. Sebastian on the Appian Way the (yet visible) marble monument known as the "Platonia" (Platona, marble pavement) in honour of the temporary transfer to that place (258) of the bodies of Sts. Peter and Paul, and decorated it with an important historical inscription (see Northcote and Brownlow, Roma Sotterranea). He also built on the Via Ardeatina, between the cemeteries of Callistus and Domitilla, a basilicula, or small church, the ruins of which were discovered in 1902 and 1903, and in which, according to the "Liber Pontificalis", the pope was buried with his mother and sister. On this occasion the discoverer, Monsignor Wilpert, found also the epitaph of the pope's mother, from which it was learned not only that her name was Laurentia, but also that she had lived the sixty years of her widowhood in the special service of God, and died in her eighty-ninth year, having seen the fourth generation of her descendants. Damasus built at the Vatican a baptistery in honour of St. Peter and set up therein one of his artistic inscriptions (Carmen xxxvi), still preserved in the Vatican crypts. This subterranean region he drained in order that the bodies buried there (juxta sepulcrum beati Petri) might not be affected by stagnant or overflowing water. His extraordinary devotion to the Roman martyrs is now well known, owing particularly to the labours of Giovanni Battista De Rossi. For a good account of his architectural restoration of the catacombs and the unique artistic characters (Damasan Letters) in which his friend Furius Dionysius Filocalus executed the epitaphs composed by Damasus, see Northcote and Brownlow, "Roma Sotterranea" (2nd ed., London, 1878-79). The dogmatic content of the Damasan epitaphs (tituli) is important (Northcote, Epitaphs of the Catacombs, London, 1878). He composed also a number of brief epigrammata on various martyrs and saints and some hymns, or Carmina, likewise brief. St. Jerome says (Ep. xxii, 22) that Damasus wrote on virginity, both in prose and in verse, but no such work has been preserved. For the few letters of Damasus (some of them spurious) that have survived, see P.L., XIII, 347-76, and Jaffé, "Reg. Rom. Pontif." (Leipzig, 1885), nn. 232-254
[Editor: Pope Damasius incidentally was the first pope to assume the role of "Pontifex Maximus".
For the preceeding one thousand years the role had been held by the emperors.
Constantine (324-337), Constantius (337-360), Julian (360-363) were "Pontifex Maximi"]
- (103) p.322: [FN:23 = acta phileae] Communique from Governor of Egypt to christian Bishop Phileas, 303CE "sacrifice to gods"
[Editor: Probably resolves to Eusebius Historia Ecclesiastica.
See also the political persecutions of Diocletian in Egypt (unrelated to "christianity")]
(203) early christian sarcophagi
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- (203) p.392: "Nobody remembered what Jesus looked like" [FN:68 = Clement]
by 200 CE he was being shown on early christian sarcophagi in a sterotypes pagan image,
as a philosopher teaching among his pupils .. shepherd and flock." [Citation??]
[Editor: Citation (105) to be checked.]
(204) Cleveland Museum statuettes
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The following is quoted from the The Cleveland Museum in reference to a series
of statuettes known as the Jonah Marbles. They are believed to be sourced
from Asia Minor, probably Phrygia (Central Turkey), 3rd century c. 270-280, and are
described by the museum - for some unknown reason - as early christian.
Here is what the Museum writes ...
The Symbolism of the Jonah Marbles
The sculptures conform to a language of symbols developed by early Christians. The Good Shepherd represents Christ as the savior of his Christian flock. The four figures of Jonah depict incidents from the biblical story. Swallowed by a "great fish" for his disobedience to God, Jonah spent three days within the beast's stomach. After repenting, he was disgorged unharmed. Jonah Swallowed and Jonah Cast Up were understood by early Christians to represent the death and resurrection of Christ. The gourd vine under which Jonah rests was another symbol of the resurrection. The image of Jonah resting developed from pagan mythological figures who, after sleeping, arose to everlasting life in paradise. The figure of Jonah Praying with arms extended in the "orant" position may represent either his repentance within the whale's belly or his thankfulness after his deliverance.
[Editor: Again, the christian presumption enters without being summoned.
Jonah is a figure in the pre-christian Hebrew bible.
Examine the figurines carefully.
There is no "christian copyright symbol".]
(205) Dura Europa; early christian art
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- (205) FOX - p.393:
"In mid third century, variable figures of christ,
with and without a beard could be seen
in the wall paintings of the house church in Dura".
[Editor: Reconstruction of the inside of the hypothetical christian house-church.]
[Editor: ABOVE: Map of Dura-Europa
Citation (107) to Dura-Europa is discussed in a separate article.
This article is reproduced below ...
Introduction
Dura Europos was an ancient town in the antiquity being here studied.
It was founded in 303 BCE by the Seleucids on the intersection of trade
routes along the Euphrates. It was rebuilt in the 2nd century BCE as a
great city, with rectangular blocks defined by cross-streets arranged round
a large central agora.
It later became a frontier fortress of the Parthian Empire. It was captured
by the Romans in 165 CE and abandoned after a Sassanian siege in 256-257.
After it was abandoned, it was covered by sand and mud and effectively
disappeared from sight.
The town was rediscovered during WWI, and archeological excavations
in the 1920's and 1930's by American and French teams, were continued
in the 1980's and to date. In the course of the excavations at Dura Europos
over a hundred parchment and papyrus fragments and many inscriptions have
revealed texts in Greek and Latin, Palmyrenean, Hebrew, Hatrian, Safaitic,
and Pahlavi. The excavations revealed temples to Greek, Roman and Palmyrene
gods. There were mithraea, as one would expect in a military city.
Jewish synagogue identified
"The world's oldest preserved Jewish synagogue was dated by an Aramaic
inscription to 244. It was preserved, ironically, when it had to be
infilled with earth to strengthen the city's fortifications against a
Sassanian assault in 256. It was uncovered in 1935 by Clark Hopkins,
who found that it contains a forecourt and house of assembly with frescoed
walls depicting people and animals, and a Torah shrine in the western wall
facing Jerusalem."
Christian house church identified?
It has been claimed also the the earliest identified Christian
church, or church house, or house church has been excavated, and
that in 1933, among fragments of text, a fragmentary text was unearthed
from an unknown Greek harmony of the gospel accounts -- comparable to Tatian's Diatessaron, but independent of it.
The apparent Dura Europos exception
The Dura Europus exception against the Eusebian fiction postulate is
twofold. One the one hand, it is claimed that that one of the structures
uncovered at the site is a primitive christian church, and on the other
hand, fragments of textual finds located at the site, were buried at the
time that Dura Eupopa was seiged, in the year of 256, and taken from
the Roman empire.
Dura Europus was then effectively abandoned, the population deported,
and was gradually buried under sand. A recent archeological report
concludes with the following mention:
"It seems now that this fresco, several ostraca in Pahlavi
found in the palace of the Dux Ripae (Figure 30/13), and the
tombs discovered in the town and along the river resulted
from temporary installation of a small Persian detachment in the town
after the victory of 256 (MacDonald; Leriche and Al Mahmoud, 1994)"
The Textual Fragment(s)
Uncial 0212 in the Gregory-Aland catalogue or Papyrus Dura 10,
are often referred to as a fragment of an unknown Greek harmony
of the gospel accounts -- comparable to Tatian's Diatessaron,
but independent of it.
It is not disputed that it may be such a fragment, but what is
disputed is the dating of the fragment to the time of the seige
when one of the walls subsided.
It is also entirely reasonable to consider that the manuscript
was brought to the city walls, and stored there out of the elements
at any later date than the seige, for example, after 325 CE.
Small parties of desert dwellers could have sought out this
remote location for hundreds of years after the seige.
The House Church
The structure is described not as a church, neither
a church house, but rather as a house church. The house
is question is presumed to be a christian church by analysis
of the the art work depicted in the alleged baptistry.
Additionally there was reported evidence of some written
Christian graffiti in this "house church".
However we see depicted in this art work "The Shepherd" and
not "The Christian".
The argument that the house in question
is not a christian house church perhaps as yet has not been made.
That the town remained totally unoccupied, a permanent ghost town
immediately after the departure of the Persian detachment, and for
thousands of years, is an unwarranted assumption.
It is not unreasonable to consider that both the manuscript
and the graffiti (if indeed they are christian) could have been introduced
to the city at a much later date, by unknown fringe desert dwellers, seeking
shelter in a desolation. Another possibility is outlined below.
Dura-Europa hosted Julian's Roman army in early April 363 CE
We are told by the historians Ammianus (23.5.1-15) and Zosimus (3.14.2)
that the Roman army lead by Julian (the Apostate) travelled to the region
called Zaitha (or Zautha [Zosimus]) near the abandoned town of Dura
where they visted the tomb of the emperor Gordian. This was Julian's
final campaign, and he was accompanied by the entire army.
Therefore it is entirely possible that post Nicaean literature was
deposited in the wall at Dura, and that christian graffiti was
scrawled on the walls, during this very brief Roman occupation of the
town, for possibly only a few days, in early April of the year 363 CE.
A further likely habitation of Dura-Europa in 363 CE
After passing though the vicinity of Dura Europa with the entire
Roman army in April 363 CE, Julian's army fell back from the
Persian frontier to the Roman empire, without proper order
due to the fact that Julian was killed in battle.
It would be expected therefore the outward route via Dura Europa
may have been used to fall back, and that a further and more
extended opportunity would have existed for fragments of manuscripts
and/or the graffiti to have been deposited at the deserted town
by the christian soldiers in the Roman army.]
(206) early christian trinkets
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- FOX [FN:71]
"Small pottery objects c.250 CE
stamped with portraits of Peter and Paul."
[Editor: Citation resolves to the assertion of Bishop Irenaeus (ie: Eusebius)]
Acknowledgements and citations |
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