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Evidence?
Ante Pacem: archaeological evidence of church
life before Constantine -- by Graydon F. Snyder
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Ante Pacem @ Google Books"
A critical review & re-examination of
the evidence presented in "Ante Pacem"
The following is a brief and critical review of the evidence presented by Graydon F. Snyder
in his book entitled "Ante pacem: archaeological evidence of church life before Constantine".
The term "Ante pacem" means "before the peace" and ironically refers to the epoch prior
to the arrival of the warlord and Emperor Constantine.
It is appropriate to introduce the entire subject by quoting the author (page 4):
"The real founders of the science of early Christian archaeology came in the 19th century:
Giuseppe Marchi (1795-1860) and Giovanni de Rossi (1822-1894)...[the latter] published
between 1857 and 1861 the first volume of "Inscriptiones christianae urbis Romae". Pope
Pius IX moved beyond collecting by appointing in 1852 a commission - "Commissione de
archaelogia sacra" - that would be responsible for all early Christian remains."
A number of interesting observations have emerged from this review of the evidence presented
by the author of "Ante pacem: archaeological evidence of church life before Constantine".
The first is that there appears to be a vacuum of evidence for pre-4th century Christianity.
The second observation is that a number of central figures and/or motifs depicted
in the presentation of evidence are clearly non christian, and predate the common era.
The two most important of these figures are "The Orante" and "The Good Shepherd".
They occur frequently together. Here is a recent and indepedent background reference to the central
figure of the "Orante":
The Orante and the Goddess in the Roman Catacombs - Valerie Abrahamsen
The Orante, or Orans, figure, a very common and important symbol in early Christian art, is difficult to interpret.
Theories of what she meant to early Christians, especially Roman Christians who buried their dead in the catacombs,
range from a representation of the soul of the deceased to a symbol of filial piety. In this article, I will attempt
to show that the Orante figure originates with the prehistoric goddess, the all-encompassing Nature deity
worshipped for millennia throughout the Mediterranean world.
In this book Graydon Snyder claims to present evidence of "Christian Church life before Constantine".
However when these claims are examined, one after the other, in the following account, these claims do not appear
to be a justified inference from the evidence presented. The central figure, a female "Mother Goddess",
has not been understood in the confused haste to seek "Christian motifs" amidst "Panhellenic motifs".
Index to Review ........
[Index]
p.13
CHAPTER 2: Early Christian Symbols
2.1 The Lamb
The above is listed as Plate 1.
Jonah under the vine, on which are several lambs.
The third century sarcophagus (above) is from the Church of Santa Maria Antiqua (Rome).
This may easily be a Jewish motif.
Jonah and the whale are from the Hebrew Bible.
Summary: Totally unconvincing
2.2 The Anchor
Here is some background propaganda from the Catholic Encyclopaedia ...
"The well-known fragment of the inscription discovered in the cemetery of St. Domitilla —
which De Rossi reads (sepulc)rum (Flavi)orum — contains the anchor, and dates from the end
of the first century. During the second and third centuries the anchor occurs frequently in
the epitaphs of the catacombs, and particularly in the most ancient parts of the cemeteries
of Sts. Priscilla, Domitilla, Calixtus, and the Coemetarium majus. About seventy examples
of it have been found in the cemetery of Priscilla alone, prior to the fourth century. In
the oldest of these (second century) the anchor is found associated with such expressions
as pax tecum, pax tibi, in pace, thus expressing the firm hope of the authors of these
inscriptions that their friends have been admitted to Heaven." -- [Catholic Encyclopaedia]
There is absolutely nothing connecting the use of the anchor to Christianity.
This symbol is utterly ambiguous, and cannot be used to demonstrate "Early Christianity".
The above enlarged is listed as Plate 2
We are looking at an inscription the motif of which is the sea, boats, anchors and fishing.
That such a motif represents evidence for "Early Christianity" is entirely misfounded.
Summary: Totally unconvincing
p.16
2.3 The Vase
The vase is again - utterly ambiguous - and cannot be uniquely associated with "Early Christianity".
"I will argue that because the dove symbolizes the pax of the Christian community, then the vase
must 'contain' the source of that pax." This argument is without any merit,
Many cultures used vases, decorated with birds and doves.
Summary: Totally unconvincing
2.4 The Dove
Data is cited by Braun. Snyder then writes:
"... if the doves from the fourth century are eliminated (those with a Christogram)
82 of the doves appear with "in pace" [in peace] and 103 appear with some
peaxce symbol. One could hardly deny that the early Christian dove symbol represented
peace to many religious actors. Ot must have signified that peace and satisfaction
derived from faith and the faith community as one faced death, or cultural and
existential entrapment."
This argument presumes "Early Christians".
The symbol of the dove was used by the Greeks in many contexts which included symbolization
of the goddess Juno, to accompany the goddess of a city, or on grave markers to symbolize
eirene (eternal rest of death), or peace.
The dove cannot be uniquely associated with "Early Christianity".
Summary: Totally unconvincing
p.18
2.5 The Boat
"Like the dove, the boat has considerable non-Christian background".
"In its origin the ship - like the anchor, and sometimes the fish -
refered to secularity in the midst of an alien environment."
Secularity is here presumed - the cart before the horse of evidence.
Summary: Totally unconvincing
2.6 The Olive Branch
"The olive branch occurs frequently with the dove .."
"In pictorial art the olive branch is nearly always found with Noah
and the Ark, sometimes with Jonah, and sometimes with the Three Young
Men in the Fiery Furnace."
These are all motifs from the Hebrew Bible.
Hebrew/Jewish motifs cannot unambiguously be used to establish "Christianity".
Summary: Totally unconvincing
2.7 The Orante
"The term Orante refers to a standing female figure with arms stretched above her head."
"In the Christian culture that emerged about 180 CE, no symbol occurs more frequently
and integrally that this female figure with lifted arms."
"She must be the most important symbol in early Christian art."
"Since the Orante has no integral meaning in most biblical, pictorial art,
(except Susannah), one must conclude that the Orante symbol has been
inserted into biblical scenes."
"[The Orante] occurred as the obverse of coins struck from the time of Trajan
to the time of Maximian."
IMPLICATION: The Orante was on the coinage of emperors between 98 CE to 310 CE.
How can the Orante possibly be considered as an exemplar of "Christian Symbology"?
... 
(Above on right hand side) Orante figure from the Catacomb of Priscilla,
Cubicle of the Velata, Rome (second half of the third century). This pose
of arms lifted in prayer is found in thousands of figures in the catacombs,
representing a soul at peace in paradise.
This is obviously not a Christian symbol.
If the Roman Emperors used it, it cannot be regarded as "Christian".
The author then concludes with the following statement ...
"The Christian symbol differs primary in that the faith community
family was a religious association, not an extended blood relationship."
The author presupposes the existence of the "Early Christian faith community".
Summary: Totally unconvincing
Sarcophagus in the Church of Santa Maria Antiqua (Rome).
Here the Orante is central with upraised arms, to the right the Teaching of the Law
and then further right the image of the Good Shepherd. (See below)
2.8 The Palm or Tree
"Seen most frequently in the context of the Good Shepherd."
It is rather ludicrous to claim the Palm or Tree as a symbol of "Early Christianity".
Summary: Totally unconvincing
2.9 The Bread
"The bread, fish and wine signify a meal celebrated in the Roman social matrix prior to Christianity".
Summary: Totally unconvincing
p.22
2.10 The Good Shepherd
"The Orante and the Good Shepherd are the only two early Christian symbols in human form.
Both are very early and both are extensively used. After the peace, the Good Shepherd
became the most popular representation of Jesus Christ."
"Andre Parrot has traced the Near Eastern use of the Good Shepherd ("criophorus")
as far backs as 1000 BCE."
NOTE: The Good Shepherd carries a horned animal, not a sheep.
"Klauser supposes the Good Shepherd ("criophorus") of early Christianity
derived from Hermes, the humanitarian god. So as the Orantes referred to pietas,
the Good Shepherd pointed to philanthropia.... The connection to Hermes seems likely ...
"The early Christians pulled these two powerful symbols from their Roman social matrix to
express their primary feelings about the Christian faith: it constituted a caring community
(Good Shepherd) in which one found kinship peace in times of turbulence (the Orante)."
The author again presumes the existence of the early Christian community.
Summary: Totally unconvincing
2.11 The Fish
"One of the earliest witnesses for the fish would be the Epitaph of Abercius."
The symbol of the fish is utterly ambiguous and cannot be used to identify "early christianity"
Summary: Totally unconvincing
2.12 The Vine and Grapes
"The most extensive use of the vine in the material we have assembled would be in
Mausoleum M under St. Peter's. It stands out against a gold sky with Christ Helios
driving across it."
Summary: Totally unconvincing
2.13 The Cross
"Like the Orante and the Good Shepherd, the sign of the cross has been a symbol of great
antiquity, present in nearly every known culture. It's meaning has eluded anthropologists
... On the other hand, the famous crux ansata of Egypt, depicted coming from the
mouth, must refer to life or breath."
"The Christian cross first appears in the Constantinian sign .... "
Some conjecture the cross in the Alexamenos graffito is "early".
..... 
Caption reads .... "Alexamenos worships [his] God".
p.28 ...... "No fixed date can be given for this drawing."
"One can easily assume such a derogatory cartoon did indeed mock the Christian kerygma."
"The burden of proof belongs to those who find private meanings"
"While there may very well be a place in early Christian art for the protective cross
of the social matrix, there is no place for the Kerygmatic cross."
Summary: Totally unconvincing
[Index]
CHAPTER 3: Pictorial Representations
p.32
3.1 Frescoes
"The earliest identifiable Christian art comes from the catacombs, primarily in Rome."
"Those sites which are, by Consensus, pre-Constantinian
and contain pictorial (only) art are:
(A) The Baptistry at Dura-Europos, Syria (now at Yale University)
Subjects: The Woman at the Well, Jesus and Peter Walking on Water, The Healing of the Paralytic,
Adam and Eve, David and Goliath, Women at the Tomb.
(B) The Sacramental Chapels at St. Callixtus, Rome.
Subjects: Moses striking the Rock, Jonah cast into the sea, Jonah at Rest, Baptism of Jesus,
Resurrection of Lazarus, Meal with Bread, Fish and Seven Baskets, Sacrifice of Isaac,
Jonah cast out of the Whale.
(C) The Double Chamber of the Lucina Area (St. Callixtus Catacombs, Rome)
Subjects: Jonah at rest, Daniel in the Lions' Den, Baptism of Jesus, Bread, fish and wine.
(D) The Flavian Gallery in the Domitilla Catacomb, Rome.
Subjects: Daniel in the Lions' Den, Noah in the Ark
(E) The Capella Greca in the Priscilla Catacomb, Rome
Subjects: Noah in the Ark, Sacrifice of Isaac, Moses striking the Rock, Three Young Men
in the Fiery Furnace, Accusation of Susannah, Sussanah and Daniel, the Wise Men,
Healing of the Paralytic, Resurrection of Lazarus, a meal with Bread and Fish.
.... 
(LEFT) The world's oldest-known image of Mary depicts her nursing the Infant Jesus.
2nd century, Catacomb of Priscilla, Rome
(RIGHT) Breaking Bread in the same catacombs.
The bulk of these motifs are derived from the Hebrew Bible.
Summary: Totally unconvincing
3.2 Mosaics
"The only pre-Constantinian mosaics clearly Christian in character are those found in Mausoleum M
of the Vatican necropolis."
See Christ-Helios above.
Summary: Totally unconvincing
p.36
3.3 Sarcophagi
Plate 13: "The sarcophagus located in Sta. Maria Antiqua, Rome.
"Likely the oldest example of Early Christian plastic art"
Description:
"The Teaching of the Law stands in the center, with a Good Shepherd immediately
to the right and an Orante immediately to the left. Continuing left is a Jonah
cycle, first Jonah resting, then Jonah cast out of the ketos, and finally Jonah
in the boat. To the extreme left side stands a river god. To the right of the
Good Shepherd there is a baptism of Jesus with a dove descending. Jesus is young,
nude, and quite small next to the older, bearded John the Baptist. A pastoral
scene concludes the right end"
The above conjecture that we are looking at a "Young Nude Jesus" is unreasonable
since there is nothing to suggest anything but Graeco-Roman non christian motifs
and is could be simply a father and his son. There is no compelling reason to
read into the motif of this scene anything to do with the christian bible. The
Orante and the Good Shepherd and the "Teaching of the Law" are Greek motifs.
Let's go through the elements of scene again, as described in the caption:
Central figures: "The Teacher of the Law", "Orante" and "The Good Shephers".
(1) The teacher of the law who reads from an open scroll is not a christian motif
and there is no attempt to describe this figure as a "christian".
(2) The "Orante" is certainly not a christian motif. The term Orante refers to
"a standing female figure with arms stretched above her head." The author
states the following about the "Orante" ....
(a) "In the Christian culture that emerged about 180 CE, no symbol
occurs more frequently and integrally that this female figure with
lifted arms."
(b) "She must be the most important symbol in early Christian art."
(c) "Since the Orante has no integral meaning in most biblical,
pictorial art, (except Susannah), one must conclude that the
Orante symbol has been inserted into biblical scenes."
The Orante occurred as the obverse of coins struck from the time
of Trajan to the time of Maximian. That is between 98 CE to 310 CE.
The immediate implication of this is that the Orante symbol cannot
possibly be considered as an exemplar of "Christian Symbology"
Other articles on the "Orante" suggest that the female symbol is most
ancient and relared to the mother goddess through whom all life emerges.
Perhaps one of the better articles I have reviewed on this matter is:
***************************
(3) "The Good Shepherd" is also certainly NOT a Christian symbol.
"Andre Parrot has traced the Near Eastern use of the Good Shepherd
also known as the ("criophorus") as far backs as 1000 BCE."
NOTE: The Good Shepherd carries a horned animal, not a sheep.
The author writes ...
(a)"Klauser supposes the Good Shepherd ("criophorus") to be derived from Hermes,
the humanitarian god. So as the Orantes referred to pietas, the Good Shepherd
pointed to philanthropia.... The connection to Hermes seems likely ...
(b) "The early Christians pulled these two powerful symbols from their Roman social matrix".
One may alternatively deduce that these three central figures are non christian motifs.
Let's move on to the rest of the scene ....
LEFT SIDE: (from the caption)
"Continuing left is a Jonah cycle, first Jonah resting, then Jonah cast
out of the ketos, and finally Jonah in the boat. To the extreme left
side stands a river god."
The identification of "Jonah" and a "Jonah cycle" is haphazard since
there is absolutely nothing in the scene to support this assertion.
The "Ketos" is a non biblical sea monster, and the figure might just
as well be indentified with the legend of Hercules, whom the Roman
Emperors (up until Diocletian) variously patronised.
The river god at the extreme left is another very strong indication
that the motif is non christian.
RIGHT SIDE (from the caption)
"To the right of the Good Shepherd there is a baptism of Jesus with a dove
descending. Jesus is young, nude, and quite small next to the older, bearded
John the Baptist. A pastoral scene concludes the right end"
The identification of Jesus as the small young nude child being baptised
by the older bearded John the Baptist is exceedingly rediculous. The biblical
account does not narrate anything about the childhood of Jesus (of course
some of the "Infancy Gnostic Gospels and Acts" do make such mention) but it
is generally accepted that Jesus, if he was baptised by John, was not a child
at the time. I cannot see any dove descending upon the young nude child who
is being misconstrued as Jesus. Finally the pastoral scene is hardly
symbolic of christianity, and in fact is far more suggestive of "Pagan"
(ie: country) motifs.
SUMMARY:
Looking back across the above analysis of the scene there appears to be absolutely
nothing compelling the objective skeptic from concluding that the evidence being
presented as "Christian" is in fact totally unconvincing. The scene is full of
motifs from the Graeco-Roman social matrix, which dominated Rome and the Roman
empire until the beginning of the fourth century.
Plate 14: A Pre-Constantinian sarcophagus - Museo Pio chistiano, the Vatican, Item #119
Description is given thus:
"The center lower level consists primarily of a large, detailed Jonah cycle
with the boat to the left manned by three men, the middle of whom is casting
Jonah into the waiting mouth of the ketos. A second ketos to the right of center
spews out Jonah who then rests, Endymion-like and nude, under a large vine. To
the far right of the Jonah at rest is a pastoral fisher scene. To the far left
is a scene with two fishers and a basket. Between the right ketos and Jonah
resting there is a small Noah in the Ark with a dove bearing an olive branch.
On the upper thinner level to the left is a Resurrection of Lazarus with four
observers, including two women (Mary and Martha). To the right of this scene,
above the sail of the ship, is apparently a SOL INVICTUS. To the right
of that we find Moses striking the rock. In the center is placed the Harassment
of Moses, in which he is chased by two men and two other men are lying on the
ground. At the upper far right is a shepherd with a sheep looking out of a stall."
p.43
The author covers more samples of the same things pp 36 to 43 and then concludes
with a tabulation for the subjects - categorised by the author (and predessesors) -
of the Pre-Constantinian pictorial representations and their comparitive fequency:
The column "Sarg" reflects the 11 Sarcophagi covered while
the column RF represents "Roman Fragments" ...
| Subject matter of Pre-Constantinian Pictorial Representations
|
|---|
| BIBLICAL Representation
| FRESCO
| MOSAIC
| Sarg.
| R.F.
| Other
| Total
|
| "Hebrew Bible (Old Testament)" related symbolisms ......
|
|---|
| 1. Giving Life to Eve
| .
| .
| .
| .
| 1
| 1
|
| 2. Adam and Eve
| 1
| .
| 2
| .
| 1
| 4
|
| 3. Noah in the Ark
| 3
| .
| 3
| 2
| .
| 8
|
| 4. Sacrifice of Isaac
| 2
| .
| 1
| 2
| .
| 5
|
| 5. Harassment of Moses
| .
| .
| 1
| .
| .
| 1
|
| 6. Moses striking the Rock
| 4
| .
| 1
| .
| .
| 5
|
| 7. Moses and the Bush
| .
| .
| .
| .
| 1
| 1
|
| 8. Ascension of Elijah
| .
| .
| .
| 1
| .
| 1
|
| 9. Jonah Cast into the Sea.
| 4
| 1
| 8
| 23
| 12
| 138
|
| 10. Jonah and the Ketos
| 1
| .
| 8
| 17
| 2
| 28
|
| 11. Jonah at Rest
| 5
| .
| 7
| 25
| 5
| 42
|
| 12. Tobit and Fish
| .
| .
| 1
| .
| .
| 1
|
| 13. Three Young men in Fiery Furnace
| 1
| .
| .
| 3
| .
| 4
|
| 14. Daniel in the Lions' Den
| 3
| .
| 2
| .
| 2
| 6
|
| 15. Susannah and the Elders
| 3
| .
| .
| 1
| .
| 4
|
| 16. David and Goliath
| 1
| .
| .
| .
| .
| 1
|
| 17. Wisemen
| 1
| .
| .
| .
| .
| 1
|
| "New Testament related symbolisms" ......
|
|---|
| 18. Baptism of Jesus
| 3
| .
| 1
| 2
| .
| 6
|
| 19. Jesus Teaching
| .
| .
| 1
| 1
| .
| 1
|
| 20. Healing of the Paralytic
| 2
| .
| 1
| .
| .
| 3
|
| 21. Healing of the Demon Possessed
| .
| .
| 1
| .
| .
| 1
|
| 22. Healing of the Lame
| .
| .
| .
| 1
| .
| 1
|
| 23. Healing of the Crippled
| .
| .
| .
| 1
| .
| 1
|
| 24. Multiplication of Loaves and Fishes
| .
| .
| 1
| 1
| .
| 2
|
| 25. Woman at the Well
| 2
| .
| .
| .
| .
| 2
|
| 26. Resurrection of Lazarus
| 2
| .
| 2
| 1
| .
| 5
|
| 27. Walking on the Water
| 1
| .
| .
| .
| .
| 1
|
| 28. Women at the Tomb
| 1
| .
| .
| .
| .
| 1
|
| 29. Fishermen
| .
| 1
| 2
| .
| .
| 3
|
| 30. Woman with a Flow of Blood
| .
| .
| 1
| .
| .
| 1
|
| 31. Christ Helios
| .
| 1
| .
| .
| .
| 1
|
None of these pictorial representations need be interpretted as sourced in the Bible.
All of these pictorial representations already have elements which cannot be so interpretted,
such as the Orante and the "Good Shepherd". The presence of "New Testament" related
symbolism is even more tenditious. Jesus as a small nude figure is stretching the imagination.
At the end of the day, it will appear reasonable that none of the above pictorial representations
have anything whatsoever to do with the Bible, since the Bible was not popularised until after
the rise of Constantine.
[Index]
CHAPTER 4: Pictorial Interpretations
4.1 The Jonah Cycle
"There is little in these scenes that to indicate that the Biblical story of Jonah is being told:.
"It has generally been accepted now that the Jonah cycle, or for that matter
any other pictorial representation of pre-Constantinian Christianity, does not
narrate the biblical story to which it is related."
On the basis of the above, the details of the following pages
from p.48 to 65 have been omitted. Some of the references, for
example "Christ - Helios" have already been discussed, and all
of the references are represented in the table above.
4.2 Noah in the Ark
4.3 Daniel in the Lion's Den
4.4 Susannah and the Elders
4.5 The Sacrifice of Isaac
4.6 Moses striking the Rock
4.7 Adam and Eve
4.8 The Three Young Men in the Fiery Furnace
4.9 Jesus
4.10 The Baptism of Jesus
4.11 The Wise Men
4.12 Jesus the Healer
4.13 The Resurrection of Lazarus
4.14 The Woman at the Well
4.15 Jesus Teaching
4.16 Christ Helios and the Ascension of Elijah
4.17 The Fisherman
4.18 The Multiplication of the Loaves and Fishes
Summary: Totally unconvincing
[Index]
CHAPTER 5: Early Church Buildings
5.1 The Church at Dura-Europos
The author presents the same data already reviewed and examined in a separate article
There was no "Christian church" at Dura-Europos, neither was there a "Christian church-house".
A suspected third rated category, namely a "Christian house-church", may have been located.
However it was shipped back to the Yale Divinity College in the early 20th century.
The pictorial representations on what is called a "baptistry" has been interpretted as "christian"
on the basis or artistic appreciation when holding in mind very firmly the perceived importance of
the narratives found within the Bible and new testament. As has seen in all the foregoing, these
interpretations are without any merit. The description provided by Snyder runs as follows:
"The canopy wall contained the Good Shepherd, with Adam and Eve below the figure of the shepherd.
To the left of the baptismal canopy, on the south wall, is the Woman at the Well and David and
Goliath farther to the left, both on the upper register. To the right of the canopy, on the
south wall we find on the upper register the Healer of the Paralytic and the Peter and Jesus
walking on water near a boat. On the lower level are several women, approaching what appears
to be a tomb." [p.71]
It should be remarked that approximately more than two-thirds of the picture is not preserved.
The probability that is contained other non christian figures --- such as the "Orante".
Summary: Totally unconvincing
p.71
5.2 The Domus Petri in Capharnaum
... See the WIKI House of Peter
"One hall stands out as having been venerated. Its walls were plastered, stronger
that normal, and marked with religious grafitti. About the fourth century an insula
was built around this hall, and through the fifth century it continued to be
venerated as a holy place by pilgrims, who also left their grafitti. .... An
examination of the grafitti indicates all are later than the "peace"."
Summary: Totally unconvincing
p.73 - 75
5.3 The Double Church at Aquileia
This structure is described as "early fourth century" in A-D,
the third volume of the Eerdmans Encyclopedia of Christianity series
by the authors Erwin Fahlbusch and Geoffrey William Bromiley.
"The two buildings are simply halls with mosaic floors almost totally lacking
in Christian symbolism except for a Jonah and "Good Shepherd".
Summary: Totally unconvincing
p.75 - 82
5.4 The Tituli Churches of Rome
"It has been supposed through the centuries that the Christians at Rome possessed
(hence the use of the legal term titulus) a number of the private edifices
that eventually became the basilicas of Rome."
"Almost all of the title churches in Rome incorporate in them pre-Constantinian
buildings so that earlier generations could reasonably suppose each church
developed from a domus acclesiae [ie: house church]. Unfortunately the
documentary evidence (Liber pontificalis, pilgrim itineries, etc) does
not in any case substantiate this assumption. Therefore one cannot assume that
the presence of prior construction in an early church implies that the earlier
building was also used as a place of assembly."
The following nine Tituli "structures" are examined ...
Earlier Buildings Later Basilica
1. Titulus Clementis S. Clemente
2. Titulus Anastasiae Sta. Anastasia
3. Titulus Byzantis SS. Giovanni e Paolo
4. Titulus Equitii SS. Silvestri e Martini
5. Titulus Chrysogone S. Chrysogone
6. Titulus Sabinae Sta. Sabina
7. Titulus Gaii Sta. Susanna
8. Titulus Crescentianae St. Sixtus
9. Titulus Pudentis Sta. Pudentiana
In each case, the author admits that although at first glance these earlier
structures might offer a fine example of a "Church House", a more thorough
examination indicates that this is not possible.
Summary: Totally unconvincing
p.82
5.5 Cemetry Structures
(A) Catacombs (p.82 to 87)
"The catacombs of Rome became an incredible complex with sixty to ninety miles
of networking and thousands of burials. The use of the catacombs lasted about
three centuries, from the end of the second to the end of the fifth. It is from
these catacombs that much of the evidence for early Christianity has been gleaned."
(A1) The Catacomb of Priscilla
"... contains three separate sections ... not joined together until the end of the
third or beginning of the 4th century."
"but the only one surely was a Christian was Acilius Rufinus .... But this epitaph
belongs to the late 3rd or early 4th century. So the supposed nucleus of the early
patron [Acilius] actually has no christian history prior to the 4th century."
Summary: Totally unconvincing
"The 2nd section, that of the cryptoporticus does have an earlier Christian
history. It contains the Capella Greca with its justly famous frescoes ... going
back to the early 3rd century, making the frescoes of the Capella Greca among the
earliest examples of Christian art. From this general area de Rossi took the 370
inscriptions we will use as certainly pre-Constantinian (see chapter 6)."
Summary: See Chapter 6
(A2) The Catacomb of St.Callixtus
"Hippolytus, in the 9th book of his Philosophumena noted that Bishop Zephyrinus
(Bishop of Rome c.200-217 CE) gave over the administration of the "cementry" to a
certain deacon Callixtus."
"The catacomb of St.Callixtus was discovered by de Rossi in 1849, when he found a portion
of Cornelius' inscription. The Crypt of the Popes
was discovered by de Rossi in 1854"
Summary: de Rossi is known to have presented forgeries, and should not be trusted.
Totally unconvincing
(A3) The Catacomb of Domitilla
"None of the earlier areas show any Christian connection, so the earliest Christian
materials do not actually come from the so-called hypogeum of the Flavians,
where frescoes of Daniel in the Lions' Den and Noah in the Ark have been found."
"Early in the 4th century the remains of the martyrs Nereus and Achilleus were placed
in a cyrpt at the third level. Bishop Damasius (366 - 384 CE) built over the crypt a
small basilica, which was enlarged by Bishop Siricius before the end of the century."
"Constantine did not choose to build a basilica over any of the three earliest catacombs"
"The earliest catacombs developed as an alternative to the necropolis at ground level.
The ancient nucleus of these catacombs were non-Christian cemetries that were associated
for various reasons with earlier Roman patrons.
Summary: Damasius renovations were conducted here ---- Totally unconvincing
(B) Martyria (p.87 to 92)
"The martyr cult developed more above the ground in special edifices called martyria.
Widespread as these must have been, there are only two martyria unrelated to the
covered cemetries that we can consider pre-Constantinian: one at Bonn, in Germany,
and a less obvious one at Salona, in Yogoslavia.
(B1) Bonn: Sts Cassius and Florientius
"Actually there is nothing to prove the martyrium was Christian."
Summary: Totally unconvincing
(B2) Salona
"These martyrs were buried in ordinary cemetries in a style not readily distinguishable
from the other burials."
" ...... precision in dating is lacking."
"None of these covered cemetries precede Constantine ..."
Summary: Totally unconvincing
p.92 to 115
(C) Covered Cemetries in Rome
(C1) Sta. Agnese
"Built in the 7th century by Pope Honarius I, although a prior building must have been
erected between 337 and 349 CE. ....... Any 3rd century elements, if they existed, can
no longer be traced."
Summary: Totally unconvincing
(C2) S. Lorenzo fuori le mura
"The construction (Catacomb of Cyrica underneath the church) shows some elegance and
appears to be Constantianian ...."
Summary: Totally unconvincing
(C3) SS. Marcellino e Pietro
"It is not certain whether among these cemeteries were any 3rd century Christian catacombs."
Summary: Totally unconvincing
(C4) S. Sebastiano
"The first burials here were not Christian. One burial can be associated with a freedman
of Trajan .... these existed as pagan burial places until about 200 CE ...."
"A fish and anchor symbol appear ..."
"One grave has 'IXTOYS' , though no explanation cn be given for the transcription or
its misspelling"
Summary: Totally unconvincing
(C5) St. Peter's
"The excavation underr St. Peter's has to be the most contraversial, informative, and
debated archaeological dig ever undertaken. ..... St. Peter's was built by Constantine
in the mid 4th century at great cost and with considerable effort..... We can say that
the basilica was built over a non-Christian necropolis. ..... Basically no signs of
Christianity, with two exceptions ...... that of CHRIST HELIOS and patterns for Jonah
cast out of the boat and the Fisher."
"On the north side of the wall g are many graffiti of a Christian origin, primarily
Constantinian. These are discussed pp.145 to 147, None of them refers to a cult of
Peter in this vicinity"
"In the 4th century deposito martyrum, a calandar of festivals for Rome, the notice
for June 29 provides that tge date for the martyrdom (of Peter) given is not 64 CE, but
258 CE! ..If there had been a cult of Peter at the Vatican one would also expect that the
graves of Christians would have been assembled around the aedicula .... there were a number
of graves... Not one shows signs of a Christian burial"
There follows the account of the "Bones of St. Peter" involving the professional gullibility
of Professor Marghuerita Guarducci, the "switcharoo" of Monsignor Kaas to another grotto, and
the summary "It is out of scientific hands".
"The boned hidden by Kaas are now visible in the crypt of St. Peters as the historical bones
of the apostle."
"The victory of the city group over the cemetry group was close and hard fought. The conflict
between Damasius and Ursinus was especially bloody"
"Finally, Constantine's St. Peter's, though a five aisle building with a transept rather than a
long building with an ambulatory, still must be considered a covered cemetery. It had no altar
until Gregory; it had no priesthood. According to archaeological and literary evidence it was
used for burials and meals with the dead."
"After all that the information here regarding Christianity before the "peace" does not amount
to much. As with the other covered cemeteries (except for S. Sebastiano), Constantine built
over a site that does not in itself appear to have a prior Christian history, even though a
causative factor, the Circus of Nero, may be close at hand."
Summary: Absolutely and totally unconvincing
(C6) Tor de'Schiavi
"The complex was erected in the Constantinian era ..."
Summary: Totally unconvincing
5.6 Baptistries
"Of these only the baptistry at Dura-Europos can with assurance be indentified as
third century".
Other possible third century baptistries include ....
(A) The House of the Fish in Ostia
"Many believe it to be Christian because of the unusual mosaic symbol in its vestibule:
a goblet with one fish inside and two outside...... Such a house fits the image of a
house church..... Bit without any graffiti, or distinctive furniture, it would be
difficult to make any claims about this house, other than it was possible ..."
Summary: Totally unconvincing
(B) S.Gregorio in Milan
(C) Gabia la Grande
Summary: Totally unconvincing
[Index]
p.119
CHAPTER 6: Inscriptions and Graffiti
"Any statement about pre-Constantinian Christian inscriptions offers major difficulties.
Most of the inscritpions we possess today come from burial slabs. The vast majority of
these have been discovered in the catacombs of Rome ...."
6.1 Dated Inscriptions from Rome
"There are 62 inscriptions from the collection at Rome that can be positively dated
prior to Constantine. The first four are correctly dated, but were considered Christian
only because de Rossi found them in what he thought were early Christian areas. Later
editors have dropped them." [Dated 71, 107, 111 and 204 CE]
(A) The Inscription of Marcus Aurelius Prosenes #5
Summary: See the separate article about this ----- totally unconvincing
(B) Tituli of the Popes (# 6, 9, 11, 14, 15, 16, 31, 43)
"Considering the antiquity ... of the Crypt of the Popes, it would be difficult not to take
these as authentic, even though there is no date included."
THE DATES ARE PROVIDED BY HIPPOLYTUS !!!! (ie: by Eusebius' "Church History")
The question in my mind is whether de Rossi simply fabricated a list from Hippolytus.
Summary: totally unconvincing
(C) Inscription of Heraclitus (# 12) dated 238 CE
"The presence of a "Good Shepherd" on the sarcophagus indicates that we are very likely
dealing with a Christian family".
The converse may also be true - the "Good Shepherd" is a non-Christian motif.
The commencement of the translation of the inscription is given as ....
"Heraclitus, who was dear to God, lives 8 years ....... "
*******************
The ascription "Dear to God" is here being commended as the "Christian signature".
This cannot be treated as an unambiguous ascription as non-Christians also held
their children as "dear to God".
Summary: totally unconvincing
(D) Inscription of Marcianus (# 21) dated 268 or 279 CE
Translation is given as follows:
"Pastor and Titiana and Marciana and
Chreste, for som Marcianus well deserving
in (Jesus Christ) (our Lord) ......"
"Moving towards the end of the century, the language of inscriptions became more\
eplicitly Christian. Int his one ... notonly do we have reference to Jesus Christ,
our Lord, but the "Jesus Christ" has become so common it has been written in symbolic
shorthand (as an "X"), and the "our Lord" in abbreviation (as "d n" -- domino nostro)"
**********************
With a great liberty and a "poetic licence" the presence of "X" is being translated as JC.
Ditto the presence of "d n" is being translated as an abbreviation of "Our Lord"
This is not ancient historical evidence of a pre-Constantinian Christian inscription.
This is modern poetic licence seeking evidence when none exists.
The idea that "JC" has now become so common as to warrant abbreviation is an absurd conjecture.
Summary: totally unconvincing
(E) Inscription of Cervonia Silvana (# 37) dated 291 CE
The translation is given as follows:
"(In Christ) from Virginius. So nicely
you lived with me as a freed wife
most innocent Cervonia Silvana.
Eat the refrigium with a holy spirit ..."
******************
Again, the presence of an "X" has been poetically translated as "In Christ".
This is utterly conjectural and requires the use of "Christian Glasses".
The reference to a "holy spirit" is also a non Christian concept.
Summary: totally unconvincing
p.127
6.2 Inscriptions from Pre-Constantinian Sarcophagi
"In addition to the 62 dated Roman Christian inscriptions there are 21 inscriptions
on sarcophagi ....." [these have been labelled as #63 through to #83]
THESE ARE ALL PRESUMEABLY UNDATED, and the dating is given from "the 3rd century"
to the "Beginning of the 4th century".
(A) The Inscription of Clodia Lupercilla (# 64) dated "3rd century".
The translation is given as follows ....
"Clodia Lupercilla, in peace sleep well ...."
To justify this being a Christian inscription the author writes ....
"This undoubtedly Christian inscription includes the "trade mark", "in pace",
which picks up so many of the symbols of the early church, like the dove, the Orante,
and the olive branch ..."
************
The occurrence of the term "IN PEACE" is enough to get this inscription
into the register because there is absolutely no other evidence by which
the presence of pre-Consantinian may be supported.
This is another example of "poetic licence".
Summary: totally unconvincing
(B) The Inscription of Juliana (# 78)
The translation is given as ....
"Junia Julia Julianeti a wife most sweet ....."
[Over the Orante : Juliana]
"It cannot be determined to what extent Christianity participated in an
inevitable social development or itself caused a democratic equalisation."
***************
The presence of three names is here taken as being represented as indicative
that we are here dealing with Juliana as a Christian. This is utterly conjectural
and again indicates some form of pathological "poetic license".
Summary: totally unconvincing
6.3 Inscriptions from the Vatican Museum.
"In 1963 a group of Finnish scholars catalogued and published 330 early Christian
tituli from the Vatican inscription collection. These were not associated
with the sarcophagi in the Vatican, they were not dated, and they were not
listed in ICUR. The editors .... have estimated the dates of these inscriptions
by comparing their styles with datable materials. Twenty five (25) ... were
considered pre-Constantinian ...... some may not be Christian.
(A) Inscription of Flavia Eutychia (# 3 of 25)
The translation is given as .....
"Flavia Eutychia a most dear nurse".
The notes provided state ....
"One wonders if we have in this inscription signals of a function in the
Christian community that would lead later to nurturing orders of women,
but that cannot be determined ..... 1 Timothy 4:9 mentions an order of widows."
********************
Again, it is manifest that a huge "poetic license" is being here invoked.
There is absolutely nothing here that represents a Christian presence, and
the reference to 1 Tim. is surely puttng the cart before the horse.
Summary: totally unconvincing
(B) Inscription of Epictetus (# 15)
The translation is given as .....
"Good memories to a most innocent son Epictetus,
who always with his parents lived most innocently ...."
The notes state:
"This inscription, like so many others, stands on the edge of Christian culture."
***************************
With a great "poetic license", the compilers are literally "clutching at straws".
Summary: totally unconvincing
(C) The Inscription of Hermicus (# 16)
The translation is given as ....
"To a well deserving Hermicus in peace
who lived with his wife 80 years ...."
The notes state:
"The in pace marks this as a Christian inscription ...."
"Hermicus has a single cognomen derived from a Greek god Hermes"
*******************
That the presence of "In peace" represents a Christian TRADE MARK is ludicrous.
Summary: totally unconvincing
(D) The Inscription of Januaria (# 17)
The translation given is ....
"To once married Januaria, well deserving, in peace ...."
***********************
Another "in peace" TRADE MARK.
Summary: totally unconvincing
p.132
6.4 Inscriptions from the Catacomb of Priscilla
"de Rossi collected [here] a number of inscriptions ... they are not dated;
they simply come from an area near a nucleus that can be dated prior to
Constantine. Most ,,, could not otherwise be identified as Christian.
Indeed they may belong to a period in the history of the catacomb when
it was non-Christian. It is far more likely, however, that the nondistinguishable
inscriptions (#'s 2,3,4,6,7,13,15, ad passim) were Christian, but cut
before Christian chgaracteristics were available."
"Christian symbols .... anchors (#'s 44, 45, 84, 106)
palms (#'s 153, 197)
dove (# 198)
fish (#'s 216, 217, 309)"
"Christian ascriptions .pax (#'s 24, 80, 82, 83, 87, 94, 105)
in pace (#'s 55, 63, 357)
In deo (146, 228, 362)
"Some Christian names...Paulus (# 2)
Timoteus (# 43)
Agapetus (# 55, 366)
Petrus (# 1, 23, 72, 108, 149, 157)
Euelpistis (# 88)
Stefanus (# 126)
Elpizusa (# 143)
Susanna (# 156)
Theodora (#174)
Irene (# 260)
Theodote (#284)
Paulina (# 285)
Elpis (# 331)
****************
Summary: totally unconvincing
6.5 Inscriptions from the Upper Tembris Valley
**** This section deals with the "Christians for Christians Inscription" and defers
to the catalogue of Else Gibson which has been reviewed in detail in a separate
article.
Refer to The Christians for Christians Inscriptions of Phrygia
- a review of data presented by Elsa Gibson
This section also covers the Inscription of Abercius
which is already dealt with in a separate article (above link).
Summary: totally unconvincing (See the separate analysis)
6.6 Graffiti in the Triclia and Spring under S. Sebastiano.
**************
These graffiti cannot be dated with any certainty.
Summary: totally unconvincing
6.7 The Aedicula of St. Peter
**************
These graffiti cannot be dated with any certainty.
Summary: totally unconvincing
6.8 The Graffiti of the Domus Ecclesiae in Dura-Europos.
See the separate article on Dura-Europos
Summary: totally unconvincing
6.9 Graffit on the Choir of the Liebfrauenkirche in Trier
"The wall relected three periods of building, the earliest dating back
to the Constantinian era. (350 to 380 CE)"
Summary: totally unconvincing
[Index]
CHAPTER 7: Papyrus Documentation
7.1 Letters
7.2 Official Documents
7.3 Contractual Documents
7.4 Prayers, Liturgies, Homilies and Hymns
7.5 Magical Papyri
*******
Refer to a separate analysis of the Papyri and also
to a separate assessment of Oxyrhnchus material in general
Summary: (see above articles) totally unconvincing
[Index]
p.163
CHAPTER 8: Summary
"The so-called Christian culture became visible about 180 CE ...."
***** This conjecture is entirely questionable!
"This visibility was achieved when Christians began to repeat certain symbols
more frequently that their non-Christian neighbours .... they utilised the
Judeo-Christian tradition as a backdrop for their symbolic art ..."
***** This conjecture is entirely questionable!
"While Gnosticism leaned toward a Jesus devoid of historical specificity, a
life-style that avoided community life, decision making and care, and an
anthropology that upheld personal fulfillment rather than family and community
mutuality, the early Christians promoted such values as the goodness of creation,
the necessaity of historicalness, the value of institutions, the importance of
family, and a pattern of community caring." [Cites the New Testament]
***** This conjecture is entirely questionable!
"Constantine built great edifices throughout the Christian world in order to
promote popular Christianity. His reasons for doing that may have been highly
political, but the result is the same."
***** The result is NOT the same, since there exists no unambiguous evidence
by which we can undeniably assert that Christianity existed prior to his
supremacy and to his fascist implementation of the State Church.
8.1 Christology
"In fresco and plastic art Jesus is depicted as a youth, often nearly nude,
who performed remarkable acts -- events described artistically in a New
Testament context. This had appeared by 200 CE.
***** We have a nude child standing by his father being interpretted as
the child Jesus standing beside John the Baptist as a result of an
extreme form of "poetic license" which has arisen due to the utterly
embarrasing absence of anything else representing firm EVIDENCE !!!
"It is remarkable that the Constantinian era kept that picture of Jesus"
***** YES, it is remarkable because that picture of Jesus was pagan Greek.
"It was only after Constantine, about the time of Damasius, that the picture
of Jesus was changed to from the youthful wonder-worker to the royal or
majestic Lord. At that time, Jesus shifted more to a bearded, elderly,
dominant figure"
***** Jesus was depicted as an Emperor Figure.
And how closely did he resemble Constantine?
..... 
See the British Museum Article
The Hinton St Mary Mosaic, Dorset, England, Roman Britain, 4th century CE
"This magnificent mosaic was discovered buried beneath a field in the village
of Hinton St Mary, Dorset, in 1963. Is it the earliest known image of Christ?"
p.166
8.2 Ecclesiology
"The New Testament Church began as a small group house church (Col. 4:15) and
it remained so until the middle or the end of the 3rd century. There are no
evidences of larger places of meeting before 300 CE."
****** How convenient is that for an explanation?
At the end of the day it is unsatisfactory.
A better ancient historical explanation is
that the New Testament (to the Greeks) church
did not begin until the Greek temples were
torn down, destroyed and prohibited for use,
which occured in the year 324 CE, prior to
all important War Council of Nicaea.
8.3 Worship
"From the data presented here it would be difficult to present a comprehensive
picture of the early local church at worship. Not only do we lack evidence, but
it is difficult to deal with the several locations of worship ..... the small,
nude Jesus does not relect the New Testament picture of Jesus, but the practice
of baptism in the church before Constantine. The presence of the dove signifies
the peace that comes from becoming a member of the faith community."
***** The faith community has migrated to interpretting the evidence.
"One must assume then that the popular story of Lazarus, and perhaps even Jonah,
refers to the Christian peace (Orante) in the face of death."
***** One is NOT compelled to assume anything of the sort.
The Orante is obviously a non-Christian symbolism and
may represent the spirit (or "daemon") of the deceased.
The popular interpretation of the Greek sculpture as
depicting known characters in the Bible is "poetic licence"
and is absolutely unwarranted.
8.4 Rural and Urban Christianity
"The life and conditions of Greek Christians has not been documented
prior to the late 4th century or early 5th."
***** Pausanias did not document any Christian shrines in Greece.
Perhaps Pausanias was simply blind?
8.5 The State
"Several of the key symbols (anchor, boat, and fish) indicate a conscious
awareness that the rising Christian culture was not coextensive with the
State and society at large."
***** These symbols indicate nothing "Christian".
"The Christian conflict with the state has been overemphasised by later
generations. There were persecutions, but the picture of the early
Christians cowering in the Collosseum or hiding in the catacombs better
represents later martyrologies than it does any known archaeological data.
If anything, the data refect an unconcern for police or State activities."
***** The earliest martyrologies were inventive fictions by Eusebius.
And it is likely that they were based upon the Manichaean persecutions
for which archaeological evidence does exist.
8.6 Language
"For those who had presupposed the Greek of the New Testament reflected the
language of the common people, this collection of data will come as a
surprise. Ante pacem one looks nearly in vain for the type of
language one finds in the New Testament, the Apostolic Fathers, and the
Apologists. There are simply no reflects of biblical language ...."
***** Not "nearly" in vain, but historically "absolutely in vain"
"Constantine catapulted this new faith community into a larger public role,
but it was the Church of the late 4th century that tried to compromise,
and therefore alter, the Christianity of the ante pacem period.
***** Constantine used catapults and balisticas to destroy the old Church
of the Graeco-Roman civilisation, and his State Church of the 4th
century, finding itself the newly empowered "Platonic Guardian Class",
attempted to reintegrate the ideals of the Neoplatonic philosophers
into the philosophy and doctrines of Constantine's Christianity.
[Index]
Conclusion of Review
Constantine's Column [Above]: Provided to gain perspective on the very uneven battle
between the successful military supremacist Constantine and the ascetic priest and logician,
Arius of Alexandria, is the Column of Constantine .It could have been easily seen from the
Sea of Marmara and the Bosphorus, and was completed at the dedication of "The City of Constantine",
11 May 330. It was constructed of nine drums of porphyry each 2.9 m in diameter, topped by a
Corinth Capital. Its total height was more than thirty-six meters. The column was crowned with a
colossal bronze statue of Constantine, depicted wearing a crown of seven rays. (It may have been
Pheidas' sculpture of Apollo Paropius from the Acropolis of Athens, recycled with bullneck's head.
Some accounts describe Constantine holding a spear in the left hand, and a globe in the right hand.
Data from The Emperor Constantine, by Hans A. Pohlsander.
Historian John Julius Norwich writes that in the Column of Constantine,
"Apollo, Sol Invictus and Jesus Christ all seem subordinated
to a new supreme being --- the Emperor Constantine."
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